Chapter 2
Layered models
Advantages of layered architecture
– Complex task divided into smaller tasks
– This modular approach makes each module responsible for a specific part of the model
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– This separates services from implementation allowing for higher scalability since these do not
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affect eachother. Abstracting the functionalities from how they are implemented in a system
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Principals of protocol layering:
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. Bi-directional communication, each layer should be able to perform two opposite tasks I.e
sending and receiving
. Two objects under each layer should be identical, like in a client server architecture there
should be symmetry between the client and server at each layer of the protocol.
OSI Model
– Made in 1947 by the ISO, the open system interconnection model or OSI for short was made
in 1970s.
– OSI is made up of seven layers
Easy way to remeber these layers is the following saying
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“Please do not tell secret passwords anyone”
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. P- physical layer
. D- Data link layer
. N- network layer
. t- transport layer
. s- session layer
. p- presentation layer
. A- application layer
Physical layer:
– Carries individual bits in a frame across a link
– Communication at the physical layer is logical with hidden layer called transmission medium
below it
– Transmission medium carries electrical signals
– Physical layer transforms and sends bits recieved from data link layer
– It defines semantic and encoding types ASK waghera
– Handles raw data transmission
Data-link Layer
– The data link layer establishes and terminates connections between physical connected
nodes and moves data grams across a chosen link.
– It turns data grams to frames for transmission
– It governs error free transmission and encoding, decoding along with organising incoming
and outgoing data
Network layer
– Establishes connection between source and destination
– Handles assignment of MAC and LLC handles framing n flow control.
– Host to host connection
– Routes packets through possible routes
– It uses network addresses such as IP.
Transport layer
– Transport layer segments data into smaller units called segments for transmission and
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reassembled them at the receiving end
– Also manages flow control to match sending and receiving rates. (Data integrity)
Session layer
– It establishes maintains and terminates communication between two devices, ensures
session remains functional during data transfer and checkpoints incase of interruptions.
Presentation layer
– Prepared data by encrypting, encoding and compressing it to ensure data is correctly
transmitted between devices
Application layer
– End user software operates here, it provides protocols for sending and receiving data and
presents meaningful information to users.
– Protocols used HTTP, FTP, SMTP.
Step by step working of OSI model
TCP/IP model
– Consists of 5 layers
. Physical (bits)
. Datalink (frame)
. Network (datagram)
. Transport (segment)
. Application (combines the missing layers below into it)
