Unit -1

Introduction to
Computer Networks
 OSI Model

The OSI (Open Systems

Interconnection) Model is a set of rules
that explains how different computer
systems communicate over a network. OSI
Model was developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO).
The OSI Model consists of 7 layers and each
layer has specific functions and
responsibilities.
Layers of the OSI Model
There are 7 layers in the OSI Model and
each layer has its specific role in
handling data. All the layers are
mentioned below:
•Physical Layer
•Data Link Layer
•Network Layer
•Transport Layer
•Session Layer
•Presentation Layer
•Application Layer
Layer 1 – Physical Layer
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the
Physical Layer. It is responsible for the actual
physical connection between the devices.
The physical layer contains information in the form
of bits.
Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting
individual bits from one node to the next. When
receiving data, this layer will get the signal
received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send
them to the Data Link layer, which will put the
frame back together.
Physical Layer

Common physical layer devices are Hub, Repeater,

Modem, and Cables.
Functions of the Physical Layer
•Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides
the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock.
This clock controls both sender and receiver thus
providing synchronization at the bit level.
•Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines
the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent
per second.
•Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how
the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a
network i.e. bus topology, star topology, or mesh
topology.
•Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines
how the data flows between the two connected
devices. The various transmission modes possible
are simplex, half-duplex &full duplex.
Layer 2 – Data Link Layer (DLL)
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-
node delivery of the message. The main function
of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-
free from one node to another, over the physical
layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the
responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host
using its MAC address. Packet in the Data Link
layer is referred to as Frame. Switches and
Bridges are common Data Link Layer devices.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
•Logical Link Control (LLC)
•Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is
further divided into frames depending on the
frame size of the NIC (Network Interface
Functions of the Data Link Layer
•Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It
provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are
meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by
attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of
the frame.
•Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link
layer adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the
sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
•Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism
of error control in which it detects and retransmits damaged
or lost frames.
•Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both
sides else the data may get corrupted thus, flow control
coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before
receiving an acknowledgment.
•Access Control: When a single communication channel is
Layer 3 – Network Layer
The network layer works for the transmission of data
from one host to the other located in different
networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e.
selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet,
from the number of routes available. The sender and
receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by the
Functions of the Network Layer
network layer.
•Routing: The network layer protocols determine
which route is suitable from source to destination. This
function of the network layer is known as routing.
•Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-
network uniquely, the network layer defines an
addressing scheme. The sender and receiver’s IP
addresses are placed in the header by the network
layer. Such an address distinguishes each device
Layer 4 – Transport Layer
The transport layer provides services to the
application layer and takes services from the network
layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to
as Segments. It is responsible for the end-to-end
delivery of the complete message.

Functions of the Transport Layer

Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer
accepts the message from the (session) layer and
breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the
segments produced has a header associated with it.
The transport layer at the destination station
reassembles the message.
Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message
to the correct process, the transport layer header
includes a type of address called service point
Layer 5 – Session Layer
Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the
establishment of connections, management of
connections, terminations of sessions between two
devices.

Functions of the Session Layer

Session Establishment, Maintenance, and
Termination: The layer allows the two processes to
establish, use, and terminate a connection.
Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add
checkpoints that are considered synchronization
points in the data. These synchronization points help
to identify the error so that the data is re-
synchronized properly, and ends of the messages
are not cut prematurely, and data loss is avoided.
Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two
Layer 6 – Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is also called the Translation
layer. The data from the application layer is extracted
here and manipulated as per the required format to
transmit over the network. Protocols used in the
Presentation Layer are JPEG, MPEG, GIF, TLS/SSL, etc.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
•Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
•Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates
the data into another form or code. The encrypted data
is known as the ciphertext, and the decrypted data is
known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting
as well as decrypting data.
•Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need
to be transmitted on the network.
Layer 7 – Application Layer
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of
layers, we find the Application layer which is
implemented by the network applications. These
applications produce the data to be transferred over
the network. This layer also serves as a window for
the application services to access the network and
for displaying the received information to the user.
Protocols used in the Application layer
are SMTP, FTP, DNS, etc.
Functions of the Application Layer
The main functions of the application layer are given
below.
•Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user
to log on to a remote host.
•File Transfer Access and Management
(FTAM): This application allows a user to access files
in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and
manage or control files from a remote computer.
•Mail Services: Provide email service.
•Directory Services: This application provides
distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services.
How Data Flows in the OSI Model?
When we transfer information from one device to
another, it travels through 7 layers of OSI model.
First data travels down through 7 layers from the
sender’s end and then climbs back 7 layers on the
receiver’s end.
Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step
process:
•Application Layer: Applications create the data.
•Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and
encrypted.
•Session Layer: Connections are established and
managed.
•Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for
reliable delivery.
•Network Layer: Segments are packaged into
 Difference Between OSI and TCP/IP
OSI Model
Model TCP/IP Model
OSI stands for Open Systems TCP/IP stands for Transmission
Interconnection. Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.

OSI model has 7 layers. TCP/IP model consists of 4 layers.

Package delivery is guaranteed in Package delivery is not guaranteed

OSI Model. in the TCP/IP Model.

In the OSI model, only layers 1,2

All layers of the TCP/IP model are
and 3 are necessary for data
needed for data transmission.
transmission.

Layers are integrated; some layers

Protocols at each layer is
are required by other layers of
independent of the other layer.
TCP/IP model.

OSI Model is a conceptual Widely used in actual networks like

framework, less used in practical Internet and Communication
applications. Systems.
Advantages of OSI Model
The OSI Model defines the communication of a computing
system into 7 different layers. Its advantages include:
•It divides network communication into 7 layers which
makes it easier to understand and troubleshoot.
•It standardizes network communications, as each layer
has fixed functions and protocols.
•Diagnosing network problems is easier with the OSI
model.
•It is easier to improve with advancements as each layer
can get updates separately.
Disadvantages of OSI Model
•The OSI Model has seven layers, which can be
complicated and hard to understand for beginners.
•In real-life networking, most systems use a simpler
model called the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP), so
the OSI Model is not always directly applicable.
•Each layer in the OSI Model adds its own set of
rules and operations, which can make the process
more time-consuming and less efficient.
 LAN MAN WAN
LAN stands for local area MAN stands for WAN stands for wide area
network. metropolitan area network. network.

Operates in small areas Operates in large areas Operates in larger areas

such as the same building such as a city. such as country or
or campus. continent.
LAN’s ownership is private. MAN’s ownership can be While WAN also might not
private or public. be owned by one
organization.
The transmission speed of While the transmission Whereas the transmission
a LAN is high. speed of a MAN is average. speed of a WAN is low.

The propagation delay is There is a moderate Whereas, there is a long

short in a LAN. propagation delay in a propagation delay in a
MAN WAN.
There is less congestion in While there is more Whereas there is more
LAN. congestion in MAN. congestion than MAN in
WAN.
LAN’s design and While MAN’s design and Whereas WAN’s design and
maintenance are easy. maintenance are difficult maintenance are also
than LAN. difficult than LAN as well
MAN.
There is more fault While there is less fault In WAN, there is also less