1.

The OSI Model - Features, Principles and Layers

There are n numbers of users who use computer network and are located over the world. So to
ensure, national and worldwide data communication, systems must be developed which are
compatible to communicate with each other ISO has developed a standard. ISO stands for
International organization of Standardization. This is called a model for Open System
Interconnection (OSI) and is commonly known as OSI model.

The ISO-OSI model is a seven layer architecture. It defines seven layers or levels in a complete
communication system. They are:

1. Application Layer
2. Presentation Layer
3. Session Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Network Layer
6. Datalink Layer
7. Physical Layer

Below we have the complete representation of the OSI model, showcasing all the layers and how
they communicate with each other.

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In the table below, we have specified the protocols used and the data unit exchanged by each
layer of the OSI Model.

Feature of OSI Model

1. Big picture of communication over network is understandable through this OSI model.
2. We see how hardware and software work together.
3. We can understand new technologies as they are developed.
4. Troubleshooting is easier by separate networks.
5. Can be used to compare basic functional relationships on different networks.

Principles of OSI Reference Model

The OSI reference model has 7 layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven
layers can be briefly summarized as follows:

1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.

2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally
standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown
together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that architecture does not
become unwieldly.

Functions of Different Layers

Following are the functions performed by each layer of the OSI model. This is just an
introduction, we will cover each layer in details in the coming tutorials.
OSI Model Layer 1: The Physical Layer

1. Physical Layer is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.

2. It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
3. It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured raw data over network.
4. Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the physical layer.
5. It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.
6. Data encoding is also done in this layer.
7.

OSI Model Layer 2: Data Link Layer

1. Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted over the physical
layer.
2. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one node to
another, over the physical layer.
3. Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this layer.
4. This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames received and sent
respectively. Resending of non-acknowledgement received frames is also handled by this
layer.
5. This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also manages the Frame
traffic control over the network. It signals the transmitting node to stop, when the frame
buffers are full.

OSI Model Layer 3: The Network Layer

1. Network Layer routes the signal through different channels from one node to other.
2. It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic.
3. It decides by which route data should take.
4. It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles the incoming packets into
messages for higher levels.

OSI Model Layer 4: Transport Layer

1. Transport Layer decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
2. Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on the data are done by this
layer
3. It receives messages from the Session layer above it, convert the message into smaller
units and passes it on to the Network layer.
4. Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the network requirements.

Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more
efficiently by the network layer.
OSI Model Layer 5: The Session Layer

1. Session Layer manages and synchronize the conversation between two different
applications.
2. Transfer of data from source to destination session layer streams of data are marked and
are resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and
data loss is avoided.

OSI Model Layer 6: The Presentation Layer

1. Presentation Layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the receiver will
understand the information (data) and will be able to use the data.
2. While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to be ready for the
application layer.
3. Languages(syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems. Under this
condition presentation layer plays a role of translator.
4. It perfroms Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.

OSI Model Layer 7: Application Layer

1. Application Layer is the topmost layer.

2. Transferring of files disturbing the results to the user is also done in this layer. Mail
services, directory services, network resource etc are services provided by application
layer.
3. This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the received and to be sent data.

Merits of OSI reference model

1. OSI model distinguishes well between the services, interfaces and protocols.
2. Protocols of OSI model are very well hidden.
3. Protocols can be replaced by new protocols as technology changes.
4. Supports connection oriented services as well as connectionless service.

Demerits of OSI reference model

1. Model was devised before the invention of protocols.

2. Fitting of protocols is tedious task.
3. It is just used as a reference model.

Physical Layer - OSI Reference Model

Physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI reference model. It is responsible for sending bits
from one computer to another. This layer is not concerned with the meaning of the bits and deals
with the setup of physical connection to the network and with transmission and reception of
signals.

Functions of Physical Layer

Following are the various functions performed by the Physical layer of the OSI model.

1. Representation of Bits: Data in this layer consists of stream of bits. The bits must be
encoded into signals for transmission. It defines the type of encoding i.e. how 0's and 1's
are changed to signal.
2. Data Rate: This layer defines the rate of transmission which is the number of bits per
second.
3. Synchronization: It deals with the synchronization of the transmitter and receiver. The
sender and receiver are synchronized at bit level.
4. Interface: The physical layer defines the transmission interface between devices and
transmission medium.
5. Line Configuration: This layer connects devices with the medium: Point to Point
configuration and Multipoint configuration.
6. Topologies: Devices must be connected using the following topologies: Mesh, Star, Ring
and Bus.
7. Transmission Modes: Physical Layer defines the direction of transmission between two
devices: Simplex, Half Duplex, Full Duplex.
8. Deals with baseband and broadband transmission.

Design Issues with Physical Layer

 The Physical Layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication
channel.
 The design issue has to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit, it is
received by the other side as a 1 bit and not as a 0 bit.
 Typical questions here are:
 o How many volts should be used to represent a 1 bit and how many for a 0?
o How many nanoseconds a bit lasts?
o Whether transmission may proceed simultaneously in both directions?
o Whether transmission may proceed simultaneously in both directions?
o How many pins the network connector has and what each pin is used for?
 The design issues here largely deal with mechanical, electrical and timing interfaces, and
the physical transmission medium, which lies below the physical layer.

Data Link Layer - OSI Model

Data link layer performs the most reliable node to node delivery of data. It forms frames from the
packets that are received from network layer and gives it to physical layer. It also synchronizes
the information which is to be transmitted over the data. Error controlling is easily done. The
encoded data are then passed to physical.

Error detection bits are used by the data link layer. It also corrects the errors. Outgoing messages
are assembled into frames. Then the system waits for the acknowledgements to be received after
the transmission. It is reliable to send message.

The main task of the data link layer is to transform a raw transmission facility into a line that
appears free of undetected transmission errors to the network layer. It accomplishes this task by
having the sender break up the input data into data frames (typically a few hundred or few
thousand bytes) and transmit the frames sequentially. If the service is reliable, the receiver
confirms correct receipt of each frame by send back an acknowledgement frame.

Functions of Data Link Layer

1. Framing: Frames are the streams of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units. This division of stream of bits is done by Data Link Layer.
2. Physical Addressing: The Data Link layer adds a header to the frame in order to define
physical address of the sender or receiver of the frame, if the frames are to be distributed
to different systems on the network.
3. Flow Control: A flow control mechanism to avoid a fast transmitter from running a slow
receiver by buffering the extra bit is provided by flow control. This prevents traffic jam at
the receiver side.
4. Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a trailer at the end of the frame.
Duplication of frames are also prevented by using this mechanism. Data Link Layers
adds mechanism to prevent duplication of frames.
5. Access Control: Protocols of this layer determine which of the devices has control over
the link at any given time, when two or more devices are connected to the same link.
Design Issues with Data Link Layer

 The issue that arises in the data link layer (and most of the higher layers as well) is how
to keep a fast transmitter from drowning a slow receiver in data. Some traffic regulation
mechanism is often needed to let the transmitter know how much buffer space the
receiver has at the moment. Frequently, the flow regulation and the error handling are
integrated.
 Broadcast networks have an additional issue in the data link layer: How to control access
to the shared channel. A special sublayer of the data link layer, the Medium Access
Control (MAC) sublayer, deals with this problem.

Network Layer - OSI Model

The network Layer controls the operation of the subnet. The main aim of this layer is to deliver
packets from source to destination across multiple links (networks). If two computers (system)
are connected on the same link, then there is no need for a network layer. It routes the signal
through different channels to the other end and acts as a network controller.

It also divides the outgoing messages into packets and to assemble incoming packets into
messages for higher levels.

In broadcast networks, the routing problem is simple, so the network layer is often thin or even
non-existent.

Functions of Network Layer

1. It translates logical network address into physical address. Concerned with circuit,
message or packet switching.
2. Routers and gateways operate in the network layer. Mechanism is provided by Network
Layer for routing the packets to final destination.
3. Connection services are provided including network layer flow control, network layer
error control and packet sequence control.
4. Breaks larger packets into small packets.
Design Issues with Network Layer

 A key design issue is determining how packets are routed from source to destination.
Routes can be based on static tables that are wired into the network and rarely changed.
They can also be highly dynamic, being determined anew for each packet, to reflect the
current network load.
 If too many packets are present in the subnet at the same time, they will get into one
another's way, forming bottlenecks. The control of such congestion also belongs to the
network layer.
 Moreover, the quality of service provided (delay, transmit time, jitter, etc) is also a
network layer issue.
 When a packet has to travel from one network to another to get to its destination,
many problems can arise such as:
o The addressing used by the second network may be different from the first one.
o The second one may not accept the packet at all because it is too large.
o The protocols may differ, and so on.
 It is up to the network layer to overcome all these problems to allow heterogeneous
networks to be interconnected.

Transport Layer - OSI Model

The basic function of the Transport layer is to accept data from the layer above, split it up into
smaller units, pass these data units to the Network layer, and ensure that all the pieces arrive
correctly at the other end.

Furthermore, all this must be done efficiently and in a way that isolates the upper layers from the
inevitable changes in the hardware technology.

The Transport layer also determines what type of service to provide to the Session layer, and,
ultimately, to the users of the network. The most popular type of transport connection is an
error-free point-to-point channel that delivers messages or bytes in the order in which they
were sent.

The Transport layer is a true end-to-end layer, all the way from the source to the destination. In
other words, a program on the source machine carries on a conversation with a similar program
on the destination machine, using the message headers and control messages.
Functions of Transport Layer

1. Service Point Addressing: Transport Layer header includes service point address which
is port address. This layer gets the message to the correct process on the computer unlike
Network Layer, which gets each packet to the correct computer.
2. Segmentation and Reassembling: A message is divided into segments; each segment
contains sequence number, which enables this layer in reassembling the message.
Message is reassembled correctly upon arrival at the destination and replaces packets
which were lost in transmission.
3. Connection Control: It includes 2 types:
o Connectionless Transport Layer : Each segment is considered as an independent
packet and delivered to the transport layer at the destination machine.
o Connection Oriented Transport Layer : Before delivering packets, connection is
made with transport layer at the destination machine.
4. Flow Control: In this layer, flow control is performed end to end.
5. Error Control: Error Control is performed end to end in this layer to ensure that the
complete message arrives at the receiving transport layer without any error. Error
Correction is done through retransmission.

Design Issues with Transport Layer

 Accepting data from Session layer, split it into segments and send to the network layer.
 Ensure correct delivery of data with efficiency.
 Isolate upper layers from the technological changes.
 Error control and flow control.

Session Layer - OSI Model

The Session Layer allows users on different machines to establish active communication sessions
between them.

It's main aim is to establish, maintain and synchronize the interaction between communicating
systems. Session layer manages and synchronize the conversation between two different
applications. In Session layer, streams of data are marked and are resynchronized properly, so
that the ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.

Functions of Session Layer

1. Dialog Control: This layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in
half-duplex or full-duplex.
2. Token Management: This layer prevents two parties from attempting the same critical
operation at the same time.
3. Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered as
synchronization points into stream of data. Example: If a system is sending a file of 800
pages, adding checkpoints after every 50 pages is recommended. This ensures that 50
page unit is successfully received and acknowledged. This is beneficial at the time of
crash as if a crash happens at page number 110; there is no need to retransmit 1 to100
pages.

Design Issues with Session Layer

 To allow machines to establish sessions between them in a seamless fashion.

 Provide enhanced services to the user.
 To manage dialog control.
 To provide services such as Token management and Synchronization.

Presentation Layer - OSI Model

The primary goal of this layer is to take care of the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two communicating systems. Presentation layer takes care that the data is
sent in such a way that the receiver will understand the information (data) and will be able to use
the data. Languages (syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems. Under this
condition presentation layer plays a role translator.

In order to make it possible for computers with different data representations to communicate,
the data structures to be exchanged can be defined in an abstract way. The presentation layer
manages these abstract data structures and allows higher-level data structures (egg: banking
records), to be defined and exchanged.
Functions of Presentation Layer

1. Translation: Before being transmitted, information in the form of characters and

numbers should be changed to bit streams. The presentation layer is responsible for
interoperability between encoding methods as different computers use different encoding
methods. It translates data between the formats the network requires and the format the
computer.
2. Encryption: It carries out encryption at the transmitter and decryption at the receiver.
3. Compression: It carries out data compression to reduce the bandwidth of the data to be
transmitted. The primary role of Data compression is to reduce the number of bits to be
0transmitted. It is important in transmitting multimedia such as audio, video, text etc.

Design Issues with Presentation Layer

 To manage and maintain the Syntax and Semantics of the information transmitted.
 Encoding data in a standard agreed upon way. Eg: String, double, date, etc.
 Perform Standard Encoding on wire.

Application Layer - OSI Model

It is the top most layer of OSI Model. Manipulation of data (information) in various ways is done
in this layer which enables user or software to get access to the network. Some services provided
by this layer includes: E-Mail, transferring files, distributing the results to user, directory
services, network resources, etc.

The Application Layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by users. One
widely-used application protocol is HTTP(HyperText Transfer Protocol), which is the basis
for the World Wide Web. When a browser wants a web page, it sends the name of the page it
wants to the server using HTTP. The server then sends the page back.
Other Application protocols that are used are: File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Trivial File
Transfer Protocol (TFTP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), TELNET, Domain
Name System (DNS) etc.

Functions of Application Layer

1. Mail Services: This layer provides the basis for E-mail forwarding and storage.
2. Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host. The application
creates software emulation of a terminal at the remote host. User's computer talks to the
software terminal which in turn talks to the host and vice versa. Then the remote host
believes it is communicating with one of its own terminals and allows user to log on.
3. Directory Services: This layer provides access for global information about various
services.
4. File Transfer, Access and Management (FTAM): It is a standard mechanism to access
files and manages it. Users can access files in a remote computer and manage it. They can
also retrieve files from a remote computer.

Design Issues with Application Layer

There are commonly reoccurring problems that occur in the design and implementation of
Application Layer protocols and can be addressed by patterns from several different pattern
languages:

 Pattern Language for Application-level Communication Protocols

 Service Design Patterns
 Patterns of Enterprise Application Architecture
 Pattern-Oriented Software Architecture
 2.
Analog and Digital Signals
Like the data they represent, signals can be either analog or digital. An analog signalis a
continuously varying electromagnetic wave that may be propagated over a variety of media(i.e.,
has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of timeor can has infinite number of values
in a range). As the wave moves from value Ato value B, it passes through and includes an
infinite number of values along its path. A digital signal, on the other hand, is a sequence of
voltage pulses that may be transmitted over a wire medium(i.e., can have only a limited number
of defined values). Although each value can be any number, it is often as simple as 1 and O.The
simplest way to show signals is by plotting them on a pair of perpendicular axes. The vertical
axis represents the valueor strength of a signal. The horizontal axis represents time. Figure 1
illustrates an analog signal and a digital signal. The curve representing the analog signal passes
through an infinite number of points. The vertical lines of the digital signal, however,
demonstrate the sudden jump that the signal makes from value to value.
3.
Transmission Impairment in Data Communication

In communication system, analog signals travel through transmission media, which tends to
deteriorate the quality of analog signal. This imperfection causes signal impairment. This means
that received signal is not same as the signal that was send.

Causes of impairment –

Attenuation – It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with increasing distance
which causes loss of energy in overcoming resistance of medium. This is also known as
attenuated signal. Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated signal which gives the original
signal back.

Attenuation is measured in decibels(dB). It measures the relative strengths of two signals or one
signal at two different point.

Attenuation(dB) = 10log10(P2/P1)
P1 is power at sending end and P2 is power at receiving end.

Distortion – It means change in the shape of signal. This is generally seen in composite signals
with different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own propagation speed travelling
through a medium. Every component arrive at different time which leads to delay distortion.
Therefore, they have different phases at receiver end from what they had at senders end.

Noise – The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is called noise.
There are several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise and
impulse noise which may corrupt the signal.

Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices act as sending
antenna and transmission medium act as receiving antenna. Thermal noise is movement of
electrons in wire which creates an extra signal. Crosstalk noise is when one wire affects the other
wire. Impulse noise is a signal with high energy that comes from lightning or power lines

SNR = AVG SIGNAL POWER / AVG NOISE POWER