Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt.

Polytechnic

PREREQUIRMENT: BASIC CONCEPTS

 Concept of Network and circuit

 Types of Elements
 Types of Sources
 Source Transformation
 R-L-C Parameters
 Voltage - Current relationships for Passive Elements (For different
Input Signals : Square, Ramp, Saw tooth and Triangle)
 Kirchhoff’s Laws

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

INTRODUCTION:
An Electric circuit is an interconnection of various elements in which there is at least one
closed path in which current can flow. An Electric circuit is used as a component for any
engineering system.
The performance of any electrical device or machine is always studied by drawing its electrical
equivalent circuit. By simulating an electric circuit, any type of system can be studied for e.g.,
mechanical, hydraulic thermal, nuclear, traffic flow, weather prediction etc.
All control systems are studied by representing them in the form of electric circuits. The
analysis, of any system can be learnt by mastering the techniques of circuit theory.
The analysis of any system can be learnt by mastering the techniques of circuit theory.
Elements of an Electric circuit:
An Electric circuit consists of following types of elements.
Active elements:
Active elements are the elements of a circuit which possess energy of their own and can impart
it to other element of the circuit.
Active elements are of two types a) Voltage source b) Current source
A Voltage source has a specified voltage across its terminals, independent of current flowing
through it.
A current source has a specified current through it independent of the voltage appearing
across it.
Passive Elements:
The passive elements of an electric circuit do not possess energy of their own. They receive
energy from the sources. The passive elements are the resistance, the inductance and the
capacitance. When electrical energy is supplied to a circuit element, it will respond in one and
more of the following ways.
If the energy is consumed, then the circuit element is a pure resistor. If the energy is stored in
a magnetic field, the element is a pure inductor and if the energy is stored in an electric field, the element
is a pure capacitor

Linear and Non-Linear Elements.

Linear elements show the linear characteristics of voltage & current. That is its voltage-current
characteristics are at all-times a straight-line through the origin.
For example, the current passing through a resistor is proportional to the voltage applied
through its and the relation is expressed as V ∝ I or V = IR. A linear element or network is one
which satisfies the principle of superposition, i.e., the principle of homogeneity and additivity.
Resistors, inductors and capacitors are the examples of the linear elements and their
properties do not change with a change in the applied voltage and the circuit current.
Non-linear element’s V-I characteristics do not follow the linear pattern i.e. the current passing
through it does not change linearly with the linear change in the voltage across it. Examples are
the semiconductor devices such as diode, transistor.

Bilateral and Unilateral Elements:

An element is said to be bilateral, when the same relation exists between voltage and current
for the current flowing in both directions.

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Example: Voltage source, Current source, resistance, inductance & capacitance. The circuits
containing them are called bilateral circuits.
An element is said to be unilateral, when the same relation does not exist between voltage
and current when current flowing in both directions. The circuits containing them are called
unilateral circuits.
Example: Vacuum diodes, Silicon Diodes, Selenium Rectifiers etc.

Lumped and Distributed Elements

Lumped elements are those elements which are very small in size & in which simultaneous
actions takes place. Typical lumped elements are capacitors, resistors, inductors.
Distributed elements are those which are not electrically separable for analytical purposes. For
example a transmission line has distributed parameters along its length and may extend for
hundreds of miles.

Types of Sources:
Independent & Dependent sources:
If the voltage of the voltage source is completely independent source of current and the
current of the current source is completely independent of the voltage, then the sources are
called as independent sources.
The special kind of sources in which the source voltage or current depends on some other
quantity in the circuit which may be either a voltage or a current anywhere in the circuit are
called Dependent sources or Controlled sources.
There are four possible dependent sources:
a. Voltage dependent Voltage source
b. Current dependent Current source
c. Voltage dependent Current source
d. Current dependent Current source

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

The constants of proportionalities are written as B, g, a, r in which B & a has no units, r has
units of ohm & g units of mhos.
Independent sources actually exist as physical entities such as battery, a dc generator & an
alternator. But dependent sources are used to represent electrical properties of electronic
devices such as OPAMPS & Transistors.
Ideal & Practical sources:
1. An ideal voltage source is one which delivers energy to the load at a constant terminal
voltage, irrespective of the current drawn by the load.
2. An ideal current source is one, which delivers energy with a constant current to the load,
irrespective of the terminal voltage across the load.
3. A Practical voltage source always possesses a very small value of internal resistance r. The
internal resistance of a voltage source is always connected in series with it & for a current
source; it is always connected in parallel with it. As the value of the internal resistance of a
practical voltage source is very small, its terminal voltage is assumed to be almost constant
within a certain limit of current flowing through the load.
4. A practical current source is also assumed to deliver a constant current, irrespective of the
terminal voltage across the load connected to it.

Ideal & Practical Voltage and Current Source

Ideal voltage source connected in series:

The equivalent single ideal voltage some is given by V= V1 + V2

Any number of ideal voltage sources connected in series can be represented by a single ideal
voltage some taking in to account the polarities connected together in to consideration.

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Practical voltage source connected in series:

Ideal voltage source connected in parallel:

When two ideal voltage sources of emf’s V1 & V2 are connected in parallel, what voltage appears
across its terminals is ambiguous as it violates KVL.
Hence such connections should not be made.
However if V1 = V2= V, then the equivalent voltage some is represented by V.
In that case also, such a connection is unnecessary as only one voltage source serves the purpose.

Practical voltage sources connected in parallel:

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Ideal current sources connected in series:

When ideal current sources are connected in series, what current flows through the line is
ambiguous. Hence such a connection is not permissible as it violates KCL.
However, it I1 = I2 = I, then the current in the line is I.
But, such a connection is not necessary as only one current source serves the purpose.
Practical current sources connected in series:

Ideal current sources connected in parallel:

Two ideal current sources in parallel can be replaced by a single equivalent ideal current source.

Practical current sources connected in parallel:

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Source transformation:
A current source or a voltage source drives current through its load resistance and the
magnitude of the current depends on the value of the load resistance.
Consider a practical voltage source and a practical current source connected to the same load
resistance RL as shown in the figure.

Figure A Figure B

Ri’s in figure represents the internal resistance of the voltage source VS and current source IS.
Two sources are said to be identical, when they produce identical terminal voltage VL and load
current IL.
The circuit in figure represents a practical voltage source & a practical current source
respectively, with load connected to both the sources. The terminal voltage VL and load current
IL across their terminals are same. Hence the practical voltage source & practical current source
shown in the dotted box of figure are equal. The two equivalent sources should also provide the
same open circuit voltage & short circuit current.
𝑉𝑠 𝑅𝑖
From figure A: 𝐼𝐿 = 𝑅 +𝑅 and from figure B: 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑅 +𝑅 .
𝑖 𝐿 𝑖 𝐿

𝑠 𝑉 𝑖 𝑅
Equating both IL , 𝑅 +𝑅 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑅 +𝑅
𝑖 𝐿 𝑖 𝐿

𝑉
So, 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑅𝑖 𝐼𝑠 or 𝐼𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠
𝑖

Hence a voltage source Vs in series with its internal resistance Ri can be converted into a current
𝑉
source 𝐼𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠 , with its internal resistance Ri connected in parallel with it. Similarly a current
𝑖
source IS in parallel with its internal resistance Ri can be converted into a voltage source VS = ISRi
in series with its internal resistance Ri.

Electrical circuit elements (R, L and C):

The interconnection of various electric elements in a prescribed manner comprises as an electric
circuit in order to perform a desired function. The electric elements include controlled and
uncontrolled source of energy, resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc. Analysis of electric circuits
refers to computations required to determine the unknown quantities such as voltage, current
and power associated with one or more elements in the circuit. To contribute to the solution of
engineering problems one must acquire the basic knowledge of electric circuit analysis and laws.

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

We shall discuss briefly some of the basic circuit elements and the laws that will help us to
develop the background of subject.
a) Resistance:
Resistance is a dissipative element, which converts electrical energy into heat when the current
flows through it in any direction. The law governing the current into and voltage across a resistor
is:
𝑣 = 𝘙. 𝑖
The relationship is known as Ohm’s law.
But resistance can be regarded as linear only within the specified limits, outside which the
behavior becomes non-linear. The resistance is temperature dependent and rises with
temperature.
Mathematically it can be represented as:
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0(1 + 𝛼𝑡)
Where 𝑅0 = Resistance at 0℃ and 𝑅𝑡 = Resistance at 𝑡℃
𝛼 = Temperature coefficient and it may be positive and negative both
𝑡 = Temperature in ℃
And power dissipated by resistor is 𝑝 = 𝑣. 𝑖
𝑝 = 𝑖2𝑅 = 𝑣2/R Watts
Resistor is represented by the symbol Unit of Resistance is ohm (Ω).
b) Capacitor (C):
It is a two terminal element that has the capability of energy storage in electric field. The law
governing the 𝑣 − 𝑖 relationship of capacitor is:
𝑑𝑣
𝑖=𝐶
𝑑𝑡
After integrating above equation, we get
1
𝑣 = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑣(0)
𝐶
Where 𝑣𝑐(0) = Capacitor voltage at 𝑡 = 0.
For initially uncharged capacitor 𝑣𝑐(0) = 0,
1
Hence, 𝑣 = 𝐶 ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡

The above expressions show that the voltage of a capacitor cannot change instantaneously.
Energy stored in capacitor can be represented by
1
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑝 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑣𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶 ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = 2 𝐶𝑣 2 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙e

Capacitor is represented by the symbol Unit of Capacitance is Farad (F).

Note:
1. The current in a capacitor is zero, if the voltage across it is constant, that means the
capacitor acts as an open circuit to dc
2. A small change in voltage across a capacitance within zero time gives an infinite current

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

through the capacitor, which is physically impossible. In a fixed capacitor, the voltage cannot
change abruptly. A capacitor behaves as short circuit just after switching across dc voltage.
3. The capacitor can store a finite amount of energy, even if the current through it is zero.
4. A pure capacitor never dissipates energy but only stores it hence it is called non-dissipative
element.

c) Inductor (L):
It is a two-terminal storage element in which energy is stored in the magnetic field.
The 𝑣 − 𝑖 relation of an inductance is:
𝑑𝑖
𝑣=𝐿
𝑑𝑡
After integrating above expression, we get
1
𝑖 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖𝐿 (0)
𝐿
Where 𝑖𝐿(0) = Inductor current at 𝑡 = 0,
For initially if current through inductor 𝑖𝐿(0) = 0
1
Hence, 𝑖 = 𝐿 ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
The above expressions show that the current through an inductor cannot change
instantaneously.
Energy stored in inductor can be represented by
1
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑝 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑣𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑖 = 2 𝐿𝑖 2 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙e

Inductor is represented by the symbol Unit of Inductance is Henry (H).

Note:
𝑑𝑖
1) As 𝑣 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡, the induced voltage across an inductor is zero if the current through it is constant. That
means an inductor acts as short circuit to dc.
2) For minute change in current within zero time (dt = 0) gives an infinite voltage across the
inductor which is physically not at all feasible. In an inductor, the current cannot change
abruptly. An inductor behaves as open circuit just after switching across dc voltage.
3) The inductor can store finite amount of energy, even if the voltage across the inductor is zero.
4) A pure inductor never dissipates energy, it only stores it. Hence it is also called as a
non–dissipative passive element. However, physical inductor dissipates power due to
internal resistance.

Kirchhoff`s Laws:
Kirchhoff’s laws are more comprehensive than Ohm's law and are used for solving electrical
networks which may not be readily solved by the latter.
Kirchhoff`s laws, two in number, are particularly useful in determining the equivalent resistance
of a complicated network of conductors and for calculating the currents flowing in the various
conductors.

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

(i) Kirchhoff`s Current Law (KCL)

In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point (or junction) is
Zero.
That is the total current entering a junction is equal to the total current leaving that junction.
Consider the case of a network shown in figure.
𝐼1 + (−𝐼2 ) + (−𝐼3 ) + 𝐼4 + (−𝐼5 ) = 0
Or, 𝐼1 + +𝐼4 − 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 − 𝐼5 = 0

Or, 𝐼1 + +𝐼4 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + 𝐼5

Incoming currents =Outgoing currents

Integrating both sides of above equation gives
𝑞1 + +𝑞4 = 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 + 𝑞5
Where
𝑞𝑘 (𝑡) = ∫ 𝑖𝑘 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
So, the law of conservation of electric charge requires that the algebraic sum of electric charges
at the node must not change;
(ii) Kirchhoff's Mesh Law or Voltage Law (KVL)
In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in each
of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the algebraic sum of the
e.m.f.’s in that path is zero.
That is, ∑IR + ∑e.m.f = 0 round a mesh.
It should be noted that algebraic sum is the sum which takes into account the polarities of the
voltage drops.
That is, if we start from a particular junction and go round the mesh till we come back to the
starting point, then we must be at the same potential with which we started.
Hence, it means that all the sources of emf meet on the way must necessarily be equal to the
voltage drops in the resistances, every voltage being given its proper sign, plus or minus.
Determination of Voltage Sign
In applying Kirchhoff's laws to specific problems, particular attention should be paid to the
algebraic signs of voltage drops and [Link].
(a) Sign of Battery E.M.F.:

A rise in voltage should be given a + ve sign and a fall in voltage a -ve sign. That is, if we go from
the -ve terminal of a battery to its +ve terminal there is a rise in potential, hence this voltage
should be given a + ve sign.
And on the other hand, we go from +ve terminal to -ve terminal, then there is a fall in potential,
hence this voltage should be preceded by a -ve sign.

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

The sign of the battery e.m.f is independent of the direction of the current through that branch.

--EE
-E +E -V = - IR +V = + IR

(b) Sign of IR Drop

Now, take the case of a resistor, if we go through a resistor in the same direction as the current,
then there is a fall in potential because current flows from a higher to a lower potential.
Hence, this voltage fall should be taken -ve. However, if we go in a direction opposite to that of
the current, then there is a rise in voltage. Hence, this voltage rise should be given a positive sign.

There is another way to write KVL equation that first write the sign on the each element then
start writing from one point on a close loop and in the equation each drop sign will be the
first reach sign on the way to enter each element and all drop summation considering sign of
each element is equal to zero.

Consider the closed path ABCDA in Figure.

+ −
+
−
−
+ +
+
− −

+ −

Writing KVL equation starting from A point towards B, C, D and then enter into A in close loop

+𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐼2 𝑅2 + 𝐸2 − 𝐼3 𝑅3 − 𝐸1 + 𝐼4 𝑅4 = 0
Then rearranging the equation
𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐼2 𝑅2 − 𝐼3 𝑅3 + 𝐼4 𝑅4 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸2

Network Reduction Techniques:

Series Connection of Resistors:
Two or more resistors in a circuit are said to be in series when the current flowing through all
the resistors is the same.

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Consider the circuit in figure (a), where two resistors R1 and R2 are in series, since the same
current i flows in both of them. Applying Ohm’s law to each of the resistors, we obtain
𝑣1 = 𝑖𝑅1
𝑣2 = 𝑖𝑅2
If we apply KVL to the loop figure (a) and figure (b), we have
−𝑣 + 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 = 0
𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2
𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅1 + 𝑖𝑅2 = 𝑖(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) = 𝑖𝑅𝑒𝑞
Implying that the two resistors can be replaced by an equivalent resistor; that is, 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

Note:
The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series is the sum of the
individual resistances.
If n number resistors are in series, 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 +. … … + 𝑅𝑛
If n number resistors of same value are in series, 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛 × 𝑅

Parallel Connection of Resistors:

Two or more resistors in a circuit are said to be in Parallel when all the resistors are connected to the same
nodes and the same voltage is appearing across all these elements.

Consider the circuit in fig(a), where two resistors are connected in parallel and therefore have the same
voltage across them. From Ohm’s law,
𝑣 = 𝑖1 𝑅1 = 𝑖2 𝑅2

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

𝑣
𝑖1 =
𝑅1
𝑣
𝑖2 =
𝑅2
Applying KCL at node a gives the total current i as
𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2
Substituting Equation
𝑣 𝑣 1 1 𝑣
𝑖= + = 𝑣( + ) =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑒𝑞

1 1 1
So, + =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝑅1 𝑅2
So, 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = (𝑅
1 +𝑅2 )

Note:
The equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the product resistances divided by their sum.
1 1 1 1 1
If n number resistors are in parallel, = + + +⋯+
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛

𝑅
If n resistors of same value are in parallel, 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛

It is often more convenient to use conductance rather than resistance when dealing with resistors in
parallel. The equivalent conductance for N resistors in parallel is

𝐺𝑒𝑞 = 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + 𝐺3 + ⋯ + 𝐺𝑛
1 1 1 1 1
Where 𝐺𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅 , 𝐺1 = 𝑅 , 𝐺2 = 𝑅 , 𝐺3 = 𝑅 , … 𝐺𝑛 = 𝑅
𝑒𝑞 1 2 3 𝑛

Note: The equivalent conductance of resistors connected in parallel is the sum of their individual
conductance.

Example Problems:
1) Find the Req for the circuit shown in below figure.

Solution:
To get Req we combine resistors in series and in parallel. The 6 ohms and 3 ohms resistors are in parallel, so
their equivalent resistance is
6×3
6𝛺 ǁ 3𝛺 = = 2𝛺
6+3

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Also, the 1 Ω and 5 Ω resistors are in series; hence their equivalent resistance is
1𝛺 + 5𝛺 = 6𝛺
Thus the circuit on left above is reduced to that in figure right above.
In figure left above, we notice that the two 2 ohms resistors are in series, so the equivalent resistance is
2𝛺 + 2𝛺 = 4𝛺
This 4 ohms resistor is now in parallel with the 6 ohms resistor in figure left above;
Their equivalent resistance is
4×6
4𝛺 ǁ 6𝛺 = = 2.4 𝛺
4+6
The circuit in figure left above is now replaced with that in figure right above. In figure right above the
three resistors are in series. Hence, the equivalent resistance for the circuit is
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 4𝛺 + 2.4𝛺 + 8 𝛺 = 14.4𝛺

2)
3) Find the Req for the circuit shown in below figure.

Solution:

In the given network on right side 4 ohms, 5 ohms and 3 ohms comes in series then equivalent resistance is
4 𝛺 +5 𝛺 + 3 𝛺 = 12 𝛺

From figure above, 4 𝛺 and 12 𝛺 are in parallel, equivalent is 3 𝛺

From figure above, 3 𝛺 and 3 𝛺 are in series, equivalent resistance is 6 𝛺

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

From figure above, 6 Ω and 6 Ω are in parallel, equivalent resistance is 3 Ω

From figure above, 4 Ω , 3 Ω and 3 Ω are in series .Hence Req = 4 Ω + 3 Ω + 3 Ω =10 Ω .

Series Connection of Inductors:

Two or more inductors in a circuit are said to be in series when the current flowing through all
the inductors is the same.

Consider a series connection of N inductors, as shown in figure above left, with the equivalent
circuit shown in figure above right. The inductors have the same current through them.
Applying KVL to the loop,
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑛 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑛
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
= (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑛 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
= 𝐿𝑒𝑞
𝑑𝑡
Where 𝐿𝑒𝑞 is the equivalent Inductance of all the inductances 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 ,… 𝐿𝑛 are in series. Hence
𝐿𝑒𝑞 of a series circuit consisting of n inductances 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 ,… 𝐿𝑛 connected in series is given by
𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑛 .

Note: The equivalent Inductance 𝐿𝑒𝑞 of a circuit with n inductances 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 ,… 𝐿𝑛 connected in

series is equal to the sum of the individual inductances 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 ,… 𝐿𝑛 if their is no mutual
inductance.

Parallel Connection of Inductors:

Two or more inductors in a circuit are said to be in Parallel when all the circuit inductors are
connected to the same nodes and the same voltage is appearing across all these inductors
Consider the circuit in figure below and using the Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) at the node ‘a’
the governing equation can be written as:
𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + ⋯ + 𝑖𝑛

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

In terms of the applied voltage v, the individual Inductances 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 ,… 𝐿𝑛 with no initial charge
store in any inductor, then the above equation can be written as:
1 1 1
𝑖 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 + ⋯ + ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿𝑛
1 1 1
𝑖 = ( + + ⋯ + ) ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿𝑛
Similarly for the circuit in figure above right, we can write the governing equation as:
1
𝑖= ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝐿𝑒𝑞
Where 𝐿𝑒𝑞 is the equivalent inductance of all the Inductances 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 ,… 𝐿𝑛 in parallel.
Since current is the same in the above two equations we find that
1 1 1 1
= ( + +⋯+ )
𝐿𝑒𝑞 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿𝑛
Hence 𝐿𝑒𝑞 of a parallel circuit consisting of n Inductances 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 ,… 𝐿𝑛 connected in parallel is
given by :
1 1 1 1
= ( + +⋯+ )
𝐿𝑒𝑞 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿𝑛
Note: The reciprocal of the equivalent inductance is the sum of the reciprocals of the
inductances.

Series Connection of Capacitors:

Two or more capacitors in a circuit are said to be in series when the current flowing through all
the capacitors is the same.

Figure above left shows n capacitances 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 ,… 𝐶𝑛 connected in series along with a Voltage
source V and 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ,… 𝑣𝑛 are the voltage drops across the capacitances 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 ,… 𝐶𝑛 . Figure above
left shows the same circuit with it’s equivalent Capacitance 𝐶𝑒𝑞 .
Applying KVL to the circuit in figure above right we can write:
1 1 1
𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑛 = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 + ⋯ + ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑛
1 1 1
= ( + + ⋯ + ) ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑛

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Similarly for the circuit in figure above right, we can write the governing equation as:
1
𝑣= ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝑒𝑞
From the above two equations, we get
1 1 1 1
= + + ⋯+
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑛
Hence 𝐶𝑒𝑞 of a circuit consisting of n capacitances 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 ,… 𝐶𝑛 connected in series is given by :
1 1 1 1
= + + ⋯+
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑛
Note: The reciprocal of the equivalent capacitance is the sum of the reciprocals of the
inductances.
Parallel Connection of Capacitors:
Two or more capacitors in a circuit are said to be in Parallel when all the capacitors are connected
to the same nodes and the same voltage is appearing across all these capacitors

Applying KCL to the circuit in figure above left we can write:

𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + ⋯ + 𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑖 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
= (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛 )
𝑑𝑡
Similarly for the circuit in figure above right we can write the governing equation as:
𝑑𝑣
𝑖 = 𝐶𝑒𝑞
𝑑𝑡
From the both equation above, we get
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛

Note: The equivalent capacitance of a circuit consisting of n capacitances connected in parallel is

the sum of the individual capacitances.

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Unit-1
 Mesh Analysis and Node Analysis
 Star/delta and delta/star transformation
 Superposition theorem.
 Thevenin’s theorem.
 Norton’s theorem
 Maximum power transfer theorem
 Related Numerical problems.

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Star/delta and delta/star transformation:

Like in series and parallel connections, electrical components may be connected in Star or Delta
configurations as shown in the figure below (with Resistances). Many times circuits have to be
transformed from Star to equivalent Delta and Delta to equivalent Star configurations such that
the net terminal Resistances (Impedances) across the terminals are the same. We will show this
transformation methodology and the resulting configurations for both Delta to Star and Star to
Delta one by one.

Delta to Star Transformation:

The circuit configurations are identical provided the net resistances across the terminal pairs XY,
YZ and ZX in both connections are the same. In Star Connection they are:
𝑅𝑋−𝑌 = 𝑅𝑋 + 𝑅𝑌 … (1)
𝑅𝑌−𝑍 = 𝑅𝑌 + 𝑅𝑍 … (2)
𝑅𝑍−𝑋 = 𝑅𝑍 + 𝑅𝑋 … (3)
Similarly in Delta connection they are:
𝑅1 (𝑅2 +𝑅3 )
𝑅𝑋−𝑌 = 𝑅1 ǁ (𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ) = … (4)
𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3
𝑅2 (𝑅1 +𝑅3 )
𝑅𝑌−𝑍 = 𝑅2 ǁ (𝑅1 + 𝑅3 ) = … (5)
𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3
𝑅3 (𝑅1 +𝑅2 )
𝑅𝑍−𝑋 = 𝑅3 ǁ (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) = … (6)
𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3
By equating the respective equations, we get
𝑅 (𝑅 +𝑅 )
𝑅𝑋 + 𝑅𝑌 = 𝑅1+𝑅2 +𝑅3 … (7)
1 2 3
𝑅2 (𝑅1 +𝑅3 )
𝑅𝑌 + 𝑅𝑍 = 𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅 … (8)
1 2 3
𝑅3 (𝑅1 +𝑅2 )
𝑅𝑍 + 𝑅𝑋 = 𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅 ... (9)
1 2 3
By subtracting equation 8 from equation 7 given above, we get
𝑅 (𝑅 +𝑅 ) 𝑅 (𝑅 +𝑅 )
𝑅𝑋 − 𝑅𝑍 = 𝑅1+𝑅2 +𝑅3 − 𝑅2+𝑅1 +𝑅3 ... (10)
1 2 3 1 2 3
Then adding this equation to equation 9 above i.e. (𝑅𝑍 + 𝑅𝑋 ) we get:
𝑅1 𝑅2 +𝑅1 𝑅3 −𝑅2 𝑅1 −𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅3 𝑅1 +𝑅3 𝑅2
2𝑅𝑋 = 𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3
2𝑅1 𝑅3
2𝑅𝑋 = 𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅
1 2 3
𝑅 𝑅3
𝑅𝑋 = 𝑅 +𝑅1 +𝑅
1 2 3
And in a similar way we can get:

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

𝑅 𝑅
𝑅𝑌 = 𝑅 +𝑅1 +𝑅2
1 2 3
𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑅𝑧 = 𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅
1 2 3
Where RX, RY and RZ are the equivalent resistances in the Star connection corresponding to the
Delta connection with resistances R1, R2 and R3.

Star to Delta Transformation:

Now we have to get the equivalent values of R1, R2 and R3 in Delta connection in terms of the
three resistances RX, RY and RZ in Star connection.
Let us use the equations we got earlier i.e. RX, RY and RZ in terms of R1, R2 and R3 and get the sum
of the three product pairs i.e. 𝑅𝑋 𝑅𝑌 + 𝑅𝑌 𝑅𝑍 + 𝑅𝑍 𝑅𝑋 as:
𝑅12 𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅22 𝑅1 𝑅3 +𝑅32 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅𝑋 𝑅𝑌 + 𝑅𝑌 𝑅𝑍 + 𝑅𝑍 𝑅𝑋 = (𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3 )2
𝑅𝑌 𝑅𝑍 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 (𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3 )
𝑅𝑋 (𝑅𝑌 + 𝑅𝑍 + )= (𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3 )2
𝑅𝑋
𝑅𝑌 𝑅𝑍 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑅𝑋 (𝑅𝑌 + 𝑅𝑍 + ) = (𝑅
𝑅𝑋 1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3 )

𝑅 𝑅
Now let us divide this equation by 𝑅𝑋 and substituting the value of 𝑅𝑋 = 𝑅 +𝑅1 +𝑅
3
on right hand
1 2 3
side of the above equation we get:
𝑅𝑌 𝑅𝑍 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 (𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3 )
𝑅𝑌 + 𝑅𝑍 + = (𝑅 )
× = 𝑅2
𝑅𝑋 1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅3

Then similarly dividing the same equation by RY and RZ we get the other two relations as:

𝑅𝑋 𝑅𝑍
𝑅𝑋 + 𝑅𝑍 + = 𝑅3
𝑅𝑌
𝑅𝑋 𝑅𝑌
𝑅𝑌 + 𝑅𝑋 + = 𝑅1
𝑅𝑍

Thus we get the three equivalent resistances R1, R2 and R3 in Delta connection in terms of the
three resistances RX, RY and RZ in Star connection as:
𝑅𝑋 𝑅𝑌
𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑌 + 𝑅𝑋 +
𝑅𝑍
𝑅𝑌 𝑅𝑍
𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑌 + 𝑅𝑍 +
𝑅𝑋
𝑅𝑋 𝑅𝑍
𝑅3 = 𝑅𝑋 + 𝑅𝑍 +
𝑅𝑌

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Example problems:
1) Convert the Delta network in figure (a) to an equivalent star network.

Solution:
𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑐 10×25 250
𝑅1 =
𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐
= 15+10+25 = 50
= 5𝛺
𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑎 25×15 375
𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐
= 15+10+25 = 50
= 7.5𝛺
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏 15×10 150
𝑅3 = 𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐
= 15+10+25 = 50
= 3𝛺

2) Convert the star network in figure (a) to delta network

Solution: The equivalent delta for the given star is shown in fig(b), where
1.67×5
𝑅12 = 1.67 + 5 + = 1.67 + 5 + 3.33 = 10𝛺
2.5
5×2.5
𝑅23 = 5 + 2.5 + = 5 + 2.5 + 7.5 = 15𝛺
1.67
2.5×1.67
𝑅31 = 2.5 + 1.67 + = 2.5 + 1.67 + 0.83 = 5𝛺
5

3) Determine the total current I in the given circuit.

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Solution: Delta connected resistors 25 ohms, 10 ohms and 15 ohms are converted in to star as
shown in given figure.

𝑅 𝑅
12 31 10×25 250
𝑅1 = 𝑅 +𝑅 = 15+10+25 = 50 = 5𝛺
12 23 +𝑅31
𝑅 𝑅
23 12 15×10 150
𝑅2 = 𝑅 +𝑅 = 15+10+25 = 50 = 3𝛺
12 23 +𝑅31
𝑅 𝑅
31 23 25×15 375
𝑅3 = 𝑅 +𝑅 = 15+10+25 = 50 = 7.5𝛺
12 23 +𝑅31

The given circuit thus reduces to the circuit shown in below fig.

The equivalent resistance of

(20 + 5) ohms || (10 + 7.5) ohms = 25 x 17.5 / 25 + 17.5 = 10.29 ohms
Total resistance = 10.29 + 3 + 2.5 = 15.79 ohms
Hence the total current through the battery,
I = 15 / 15.79 = 0.95 A

Introduction to Mesh Analysis and Nodal Analysis:

Mesh Analysis and Nodal Analysis are two important techniques used in network analysis to find
out different branch currents and Node voltages. The suitability of each analysis depends mainly
on the number of voltage/current sources in the given network. If the voltage sources are more
Mesh analysis is suitable and if current sources are more Nodal analysis is more suitable.

Mesh Analysis:
Mesh analysis provides general procedure for analyzing circuits using mesh currents as the circuit
variables. Mesh Analysis is applicable only for planar networks. It is preferably useful for the
circuits that have many loops .This analysis is done by using KVL and Ohm's law.

Planar circuit: A planar circuit is one that can be drawn in a plane with no branches crossing one
another. In the figure below (a) is a planar circuit.

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Non-Planar circuit: A non-planar circuit is one that cannot be drawn in a plane without the branches
crossing one another.
In the figure below (b) is a non-planar circuit and (c) is a planar circuit but appears like a non-planar
circuit.

Loop: It is a closed path along the circuit elements.

Mesh: Mesh is a loop which does not contains any loop within it.

Super Mesh Analysis: If there is only current source between two meshes in the given network
then it is difficult to apply the mesh analysis. Because the current source has to be converted into
a voltage source in terms of the current source, write down the mesh equations and relate the mesh
currents to the current source. But this is a difficult approach .This difficulty can be avoided by
creating super mesh which encloses the two meshes that have common current source

Super Mesh: A super mesh is constituted by two adjacent meshes that have a common current
source.

Characteristic of mesh law:

(i) Mesh/ Loop analysis is based on KVL & Ohm’s Law.

(ii) It is applicable to only planner circuit.
(iii) Number of mesh equation or independent loop (l) = b-n+1. Where b is the number of
branches & n is the number of nodes.

Procedure:
(i) Identify number of independent loops or meshes and give mesh direction of current either
clockwise or anti-clock wise direction.
(ii) Write KVL equations for each mesh.
(iii) Solve the equations to get the loop current.

In general there are 3 types of problem in mesh analysis, details given below.

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Type-I:
Using mesh analysis find out mesh current.

1Ω 2Ω
3Ω

6V
7V
1Ω
2Ω

Solution:
Step 1: Identifying number of independent loops or meshes and give mesh direction of mesh
current clockwise direction.

𝐼2 2Ω
1Ω
3Ω
𝐼1

6V
7V
𝐼3 1Ω
2Ω

Step-2: Writing KVL equations for each mesh.

At loop-1 assumption for this loop 𝐼1 > 𝐼2 , 𝐼1 > 𝐼3 .
−7 + 1 × (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) + 6 + 2 × (𝐼1 − 𝐼3 ) = 0
Or, 3𝐼1 − 𝐼2 − 2𝐼3 = 1
At loop-2 assumption for this loop 𝐼2 > 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 > 𝐼3 .
2 × 𝐼2 + 3 × (𝐼2 − 𝐼3 ) + 1 × (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) = 0
Or, −𝐼1 + 6𝐼2 − 3𝐼3 = 0
At loop-3 assumption for this loop 𝐼3 > 𝐼1 , 𝐼3 > 𝐼2 .
3 × (𝐼2 − 𝐼3 ) + 1 × 𝐼3 + 2 × (𝐼3 − 𝐼1 ) − 6 = 0
Or, −2𝐼1 − 3𝐼2 + 6𝐼3 = 6
Step-3: Solving above three loop equation
𝐼1 = 3, 𝐼2 = 2, 𝐼3 = 3

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Type-2:
Using mesh analysis find out mesh current.

2Ω
1Ω
3Ω

6V
7A
1Ω
2Ω

Solution:
Step 1: Identifying number of independent loops or meshes and give mesh direction of mesh
current clockwise direction.

𝐼2 2Ω
1Ω

𝐼1 3Ω

6V
7A
𝐼3 1Ω
2Ω

Step-2: Writing KVL equations for each mesh.

At loop-1
𝐼1 = 7
At loop-2 assumption for this loop 𝐼2 > 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 > 𝐼3 .
2 × 𝐼2 + 3 × (𝐼2 − 𝐼3 ) + 1 × (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) = 0
Or, −𝐼1 + 6𝐼2 − 3𝐼3 = 0
Or, −7 + 6𝐼2 − 3𝐼3 = 0 (Substituting the value of 𝐼1 = 7)
Or, 6𝐼2 − 3𝐼3 = 7
At loop-3 assumption for this loop 𝐼3 > 𝐼1 , 𝐼3 > 𝐼2 .
3 × (𝐼2 − 𝐼3 ) + 1 × 𝐼3 + 2 × (𝐼3 − 𝐼1 ) − 6 = 0
Or, −2𝐼1 − 3𝐼2 + 6𝐼3 = 6
Or, −14 − 3𝐼2 + 6𝐼3 = 6 (Substituting the value of 𝐼1 = 7)
Or, −3𝐼2 + 6𝐼3 = 20

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Step-3: Solving above three loop equation

𝐼1 = 7, 𝐼2 = 3.78, 𝐼3 = 5.22
Type-3
Using mesh analysis find out mesh current.

1Ω 2Ω

3Ω

7V
7A
1Ω

Step 1: Identifying number of independent loops or meshes and give mesh direction of mesh
current clockwise direction and here loop-1 & loop-3 constructed super-mesh.

𝐼2 2Ω
1Ω

𝐼1
3Ω

7V
7A
𝐼3 1Ω

Step-2: Writing KVL equations for each mesh.

At Super-mesh or loop 1 & 3 𝐼1 > 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 > 𝐼2 .
−7 + 1 × (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) + 3 × (𝐼3 − 𝐼2 ) + 1 × 𝐼3 = 0
Or, 𝐼1 − 4𝐼2 + 4𝐼3 = 7
And 𝐼1 − 𝐼3 = 7
At loop-2 assumption for this loop 𝐼2 > 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 > 𝐼3 .
2 × 𝐼2 + 3 × (𝐼2 − 𝐼3 ) + 1 × (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) = 0
Or, −𝐼1 + 6𝐼2 − 3𝐼3 = 0
Step-3: Solving above three loop equation
𝐼1 = 9 𝐴, 𝐼2 = 2.5 𝐴, 𝐼3 = 2 𝐴

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Nodal analysis:

Nodal analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing circuits nodal voltages as the
circuit variables. It is preferably useful for the circuits that have many no. of nodes. It is applicable
for the both planar and non-planar circuits. This analysis is done by using KCL and Ohm's law.

Node: It is a junction at which two or more branches are interconnected.

Simple Node: Node at which only two branches are interconnected.

Principal Node: Node at which more than two branches are interconnected.

Procedure:

Step-1: Identify the number nodes, simple nodes and principal nodes in the given circuit. Among
all the nodes one node is taken as reference node. Generally bottom is taken as reference node.
The potential at the reference node is 0 V.

Step 2: Assign node voltages to the all the principal nodes except reference node.

Step 3: Apply KCL to those principal nodes for nodal equations and by using ohm's law express
the node voltages in terms of branch current.
Number of equstion = number of principle node – 1.
In genranal 3 type of nodal analysis problem.

Type-1: Using nodal analysis find out nodal voltage

3A
2Ω
1V

10 V 4A
5Ω

8Ω

6A
6Ω 1Ω 16 Ω

8V 2A 18 V

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Solution:
Step-1 & 2: Identify the number nodes& principal nodes in the given circuit. Among all the nodes
one node is taken as reference node. The potential at the reference node is 0 V. Assign node
voltages to the all the principal nodes except reference node.

3A
2Ω
1V

10 V 4A
𝑉1 5Ω 𝑉2 𝑉3

8Ω

6A
6Ω 1Ω 16 Ω

8V 2A 18 V

Reference 0V
Step-3: Writing KCL equations for each principle node considering reference node.
At node 1
𝑉1 − 8 𝑉1 + 10 − 𝑉2
3= + +6
6 5
Or, 11𝑉1 − 6𝑉2 = −110

At node 2

𝑉1 + 10 − 𝑉2 𝑉2 − 𝑉3
+2+6= +4
5 8
Or, 8𝑉1 − 13𝑉2 + 5𝑉3 = 240

At node 3

𝑉3 − 𝑉2 𝑉3 + 18
4= + +3
8 16
Or, −2𝑉2 + 3𝑉3 = −2

Solving above three equation, we get 𝑉1 = −43.25 𝑉, 𝑉2 = −60.97 𝑉, 𝑉3 = −41.31 𝑉

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Type-2
Using nodal analysis find out nodal voltage.

3A
2Ω 1V

10 V 4A
5Ω

8Ω

6A

1Ω 16 Ω

8V
2A 18 V

Solution:
Step-1 & 2: Identify the number nodes& principal nodes in the given circuit. Among all the nodes
one node is taken as reference node. The potential at the reference node is 0 V. Assign node
voltages to the all the principal nodes except reference node.

3A
2Ω 1V

10 V 4A
𝑉1 5Ω 𝑉2 𝑉3

8Ω

6A

1Ω 16 Ω

8V
2A 18 V

Reference 0V

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Step-3: Writing KCL equations for each principle node considering reference node.
At node 1
𝑉1 = 8 𝑉

At node 2

𝑉1 + 10 − 𝑉2 𝑉2 − 𝑉3
+2+6= +4
5 8
Or, 8𝑉1 − 13𝑉2 + 5𝑉3 = 240

At node 3

𝑉3 − 𝑉2 𝑉3 + 18
4= + +3
8 16
Or, −2𝑉2 + 3𝑉3 = −2

Solving above three equation, we get 𝑉1 = 8 𝑉, 𝑉2 = −18.55 𝑉, 𝑉3 = −13.03 𝑉

Super Node Analysis: If there is only voltage source between two nodes in the given network
then it is difficult to apply the nodal analysis. Because the voltage source has to be converted into
a current source in terms of the voltage source, write down the nodal equations and relate the node
voltages to the voltage source. But this is a difficult approach .This difficulty can be avoided by
creating super node which encloses the two nodes that have common voltage source.
Super Node: A super node is constituted by two adjacent nodes that have a common voltage
source.
Type-3: Using nodal analysis find out nodal voltage

2Ω 3A
1V

10 V 4A

8Ω

6A
6Ω 1Ω 16 Ω

8V 2A 18 V

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Solution:
Step-1 & 2: Identify the number nodes& principal nodes in the given circuit. Among all the nodes
one node is taken as reference node. The potential at the reference node is 0 V. Assign node
voltages to the all the principal nodes except reference node. Here node 1 & 2 construct together
super node.

2Ω 3A
1V

10 V 𝑉2 4A
𝑉1 𝑉3

8Ω

6A
6Ω 1Ω 16 Ω

8V 2A 18 V

Reference 0V

Step-3: Writing KCL equations for each principle node and super node considering reference
node.
At super node or node 1 & 2
𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = 10 𝑉

And

𝑉1 − 8 𝑉2 − 𝑉3
3+2+6= +6+ +4
6 8
Or, 4𝑉1 + 3𝑉2 − 3𝑉3 = 56

At node 3

𝑉3 − 𝑉2 𝑉3 + 18
4= + +3
8 16
Or, −2𝑉2 + 3𝑉3 = −2

Solving above three equation, we get 𝑉1 = 8.8 𝑉, 𝑉2 = 18.8 𝑉, 𝑉3 = 11.86 𝑉

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Superposition Theorem:

The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with more than one current or
voltage sources sometimes it is easier to find out the voltage across or current in a branch of the
circuit by considering the effect of one source at a time by replacing the other sources with their
ideal internal resistances.

Superposition Theorem Statement:

Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of more than one sources, the total current
through or voltage across any element of a network is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents
through or voltage across that element with each source acting individually while other sources
are replaced by their ideal internal resistances or impedance. (Like ideal voltage sources by a
short circuit and ideal current sources by open circuit)

Steps to Apply Super position Principle:

1. Replace all independent sources with their internal resistances except one source. Find the
output (voltage or current) due to that active source using nodal or mesh analysis or any other
analysis technic.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the independent
sources.

Example:
By using the superposition theorem find I in the circuit shown in figure?

Solution:
Applying the superposition theorem, the current 𝑰𝟏 in the resistance of 3 Ω due to the voltage
source of 20 V acting alone, with current source of 5 A inactive by open circuited as ideal current
source has infinite internal impedance [as shown in the figure below ] is given

𝑰𝟏

20
𝑰𝟏 = = 2.5 𝐴
3+5

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Similarly the current 𝑰𝟐 in the resistance of 3 Ω due to the current source of 5 A acting alone with
voltage source of 20 V inactivated by short circuited as internal impedance of ideal voltage source
is zero[ as shown in the figure below ] is given by :

𝑰𝟐

5 25
𝑰𝟐 = 5 × 5+3 = = 3.125 𝐴 (Using current division rule of current through parallel resistance)
8

So, the total current passing through the resistance of 3Ω is then = I1 + I2= 2.5 + 3.125 = 5.625 A

Thevenin’s Theorem and Norton’s theorem (Introduction):

Thevenin’s Theorem and Norton’s theorem are two important theorems in solving network
problems having many active and passive elements. Using these theorems the networks can be
reduced to simple equivalent circuits with one active source and one element. In circuit analysis
many a times the current through a branch is required to be found when its value is changed with
all other element values remaining same. In such cases finding out every time the branch current
using the conventional mesh and node analysis methods is quite awkward and time consuming.
But with the simple equivalent circuits (with one active source and one element) obtained using
these two theorems the calculations become very simple. Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems are
dual theorems.

Thevenin’s Theorem Statement:

Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear, bilateral two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source 𝑉𝑇𝐻 in series with a resistance 𝑅𝑇𝐻 , where 𝑉𝑇𝐻
is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and 𝑅𝑇𝐻 is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off and replaced by their internal resistance
i.e. ideal voltage source is short circuit and ideal current source is open circuit.

Replacing a linear two-terminal circuit by its Thevenin equivalent: (a) original circuit, (b) the
Thevenin equivalent circuit.

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Procedure:

Step 1: The terminals of the branch/element through which the current is to be found out are
marked as say A & B after removing the concerned branch/element.

Step 2: Open circuit voltage 𝑉𝑂𝐶 across these two terminals is found out using the conventional
network mesh/node analysis methods or any other technic and this would be 𝑉𝑇𝐻 .

Step 3: Thevenin resistance 𝑅𝑇𝐻 is found out, if the circuit without dependent sources: 𝑅𝑇𝐻 =
Equivalent resistance looking into the concerned terminals with all voltage & current sources
replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage sources short circuited and ideal current
sources open circuited)

If the network has dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources. We apply a voltage
𝑣
source 𝑣𝑜 at terminals A and B and determine the resulting current 𝑖𝑜 . Then 𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 𝑜 , as shown
𝑖𝑜
in figure below.

Step 4: Replace the network with 𝑉𝑇𝐻 in series with 𝑅𝑇𝐻 and the concerned branch resistance
(or) load resistance across the load terminals (A & B) as shown in below figure below.

So, we obtain
𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝐼𝐿 =
𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿
And
𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅
𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 𝐿

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Example
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in figure below, to the left of the
terminals a-b. Then find the current through RL = 6Ω.

Solution:
We find RTh by turning off the 32-V voltage source (replacing it with a short circuit) and the 2-A
current source (replacing it with an open circuit). The circuit becomes what is shown in figure
below. Thus,
4 × 12 48
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = (4 ǁ 12) + 1 = +1= +1= 3+1= 4Ω
4 + 12 16

To find VTh, consider the circuit in figure below. Applying nodal analysis, at top node, appling KCL,
we obtain

At node 𝑉𝑇ℎ ,
32−𝑉𝑇ℎ 𝑉
𝑇ℎ
+ 2 = 12
4
Or, 96 − 3𝑉𝑇ℎ + 24 = 𝑉𝑇ℎ
Or, 𝑉𝑇ℎ = 30 𝑉
The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in figure on right side.
The current through RL is
𝑉𝑇𝐻 30
𝐼𝐿 = = =3𝐴
𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 4 + 6

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Norton’s Theorem Statement:

Norton’s theorem states that a linear, bilateral two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a current source 𝐼𝑁 in parallel with a resistance 𝑅𝑁 , where 𝐼𝑁 is
the short-circuit current through the terminals and 𝑅𝑁 is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off and replaced by their internal resistance
i.e. ideal voltage source is short circuit and ideal current source is open circuit.

(a) Original circuit (b) Norton equivalent circuit.

Procedure:
1. The terminals of the branch/element through which the current is to be found out are marked
as say A & B after removing the concerned branch/element.
2. ISC through these two terminals are found out using the conventional network mesh/node
analysis methods or any other technic and this would be 𝐼𝑁 .
3. Next Norton resistance 𝑅𝑁 is found out which is same procedure to find of 𝑅𝑇𝐻 .
4. Replace the network with 𝐼𝑁 in parallel with 𝑅𝑁 and the concerned branch resistance across
the load terminals (A & B) as shown in below figure.

𝐼𝑁 𝑅𝑁

Example
Find the Norton’s equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in figure below, to the left of the
terminals a-b. Then find the current through RL = 6Ω.

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Solution:
We find RN by turning off the 32-V voltage source (replacing it with a short circuit) and the 2-A
current source (replacing it with an open circuit). The circuit becomes what is shown in figure
below. Thus,
4 × 12 48
𝑅𝑁 = (4 ǁ 12) + 1 = +1= +1=3+1=4Ω
4 + 12 16

𝑅𝑁

To find ISC, consider the circuit in figure below. Applying nodal analysis, at top node, applying KCL,
we obtain

𝐼𝑠𝑐

At node V,
32−𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
+ 2 = 12 + 1
4
Or, 96 − 3𝑉 + 24 = 𝑉 + 12𝑉
Or, 16𝑉 = 120
Or, 𝑉 = 7.5
𝑉
So 𝐼𝑆𝐶 = 1 = 7.5 𝐴
The Norton’s equivalent circuit is shown in figure on right side.
The current through RL is
𝑅𝑁 4
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑁 = × 7.5 = 3 𝐴
𝑅𝑁 + 𝑅𝐿 4+6
𝐼𝑁 = 7.5 𝐴 4Ω
And

𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝐿 = 3 × 6 = 18𝑉

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to provide power to a load. While for electric
utilities, minimizing power losses in the process of transmission and distribution is critical for
Efficiency and economic reasons, there are other applications in areas such as communications
where it is desirable to maximize the power delivered to a load. electrical applications with
electrical loads such as Loud speakers, antennas, motors etc. it would be required to find out the
condition under which maximum power would be transferred from the circuit to the load.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem Statement:
Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of a resistance load, being connected to a
dc network, receives maximum power when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance
i.e. Thevenin’s equivalent resistance of the source network as seen from the load terminals.

According to Maximum Power Transfer Theorem, for maximum power transfer from the network
to the load resistance, RL must be equal to the source resistance i.e. Network’s Thevenin
equivalent resistance RTh i.e. RL = RTh.
The load current I in the circuit shown above is given by,
𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝐼=
𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿
The power delivered by the circuit to the load
2
𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅
(𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 𝐿
The condition for maximum power transfer can be obtained by differentiating the above
expression for power delivered with respect to the load resistance (Since we want to find out the
value of RL for maximum power transfer) and equating it to zero as:
𝑑𝑃
=0
𝑑𝑅𝐿
2
(𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 − 2𝑅𝐿 (𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑉𝑇𝐻 =0
(𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 )4
2
(𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 ) − 2𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑇𝐻 =0
(𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 )4
(𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 ) − 2𝑅𝐿 = 0
𝑅𝑇𝐻 − 𝑅𝐿 = 0
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 𝑅𝐿

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Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Showing that the maximum power transfer takes place when the load resistance 𝑅𝐿 equals the
Thevenin resistance 𝑅𝑇ℎ . We can readily confirm that Equation 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ gives the maximum
𝑑2 𝑃
power by showing that 𝑑𝑅2 < 0.
𝐿
Under the condition of maximum power transfer, the efficiency 𝜼 of the network is then given
by:
2 2
𝑉𝑇𝐻 𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅 =
(𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝑇𝐻 )2 𝑇𝐻 4𝑅𝑇𝐻
2 2
𝑉𝑇𝐻 𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 4𝑅𝑇𝐻 4𝑅𝑇𝐻
η= = = = 0.5 = 50%
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑇𝐻 𝐼 𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝑉𝑇𝐻 × 𝑅 + 𝑅
𝑇𝐻 𝑇𝐻
For maximum power transfer the load resistance should be equal to the Thevenin equivalent
resistance (or Norton equivalent resistance) of the network to which it is connected. Under the
condition of maximum power transfer the efficiency of the system is 50 %.

Example:
Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit of figure. Find the maximum
power?

Solution:
We find RTh by turning off the 32-V voltage source (replacing it with a short circuit) and the 2-A
current source (replacing it with an open circuit). The circuit becomes what is shown in figure
below. Thus,
4 × 12 48
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = (4 ǁ 12) + 1 = +1= +1= 3+1= 4Ω
4 + 12 16

To find VTh, consider the circuit in figure below. Applying nodal analysis, at top node, appling KCL,
we obtain

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

At node 𝑉𝑇ℎ ,
32−𝑉𝑇ℎ 𝑇ℎ 𝑉
+ 2 = 12
4
Or, 96 − 3𝑉𝑇ℎ + 24 = 𝑉𝑇ℎ
Or, 𝑉𝑇ℎ = 30 𝑉
For maximum power transfer, 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 4 Ω and the maximum power is

2
𝑉𝑇𝐻 302
𝑃𝑀𝑎𝑥 = = = 56.25 𝑊
4𝑅𝑇𝐻 4 × 4

Case Study on maximum power transfer theorem:

Case-I: Source Resistance is variable.
𝑅𝑆

𝑉𝑆 𝑅𝐿

The power delivered by the circuit to the load

2
𝑉𝑆2
𝑃 = 𝐼 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅
(𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 𝐿
The condition for maximum power transfer can be obtained by differentiating the above
expression for power delivered with respect to the source resistance (Since we want to find out
the value of RS for maximum power transfer) and equating it to zero as:
𝑑𝑃
=0
𝑑𝑅𝑆

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Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

0 − 2(𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑉𝑆2 𝑅𝐿 =0
(𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )4
(𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )
−2𝑅𝐿 𝑉𝑆2 =0
(𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )4
𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 = 0
𝑅𝑆 = −𝑅𝐿
As negative resistance not exist. Choose 𝑅𝐿 value is as minimum as possible 𝑅𝑆 = 0.
Case-II: AC system and load resistance variable.
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑗𝑋𝑆

𝑉𝑆 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿

𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑆
𝐼 = =
𝑅𝑆 + 𝑗𝑋𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 (𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 + 𝑋𝑆2
The power delivered by the circuit to the load
𝑉𝑆2
𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅
(𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 + 𝑋𝑆2 𝐿
The condition for maximum power transfer can be obtained by differentiating the above
expression for power delivered with respect to the load resistance (Since we want to find out the
value of RL for maximum power transfer) and equating it to zero as:
𝑑𝑃
=0
𝑑𝑅𝐿
2
(𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 + 𝑋𝑆2 − 2𝑅𝐿 (𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑉𝑆 =0
((𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 + 𝑋𝑆2 )2
2
𝑅𝑆2 + 𝑋𝑆2 − 𝑅𝐿2
𝑉𝑆 =0
((𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 + 𝑋𝑆2 )2
𝑅𝑆2 + 𝑋𝑆2 − 𝑅𝐿2 = 0
𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑆2 + 𝑋𝑆2
𝑅𝐿 = 𝑍𝑆
So the maximum power transfer takes place when the load resistance 𝑅𝐿 equals 𝑍𝑆 .

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Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

Case-III: AC system and load resistance variable of load impedance.

𝑍𝑆 = 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑗𝑋𝑆

𝑉𝑆 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑋𝐿

𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑆
𝐼 = =
𝑅𝑆 + 𝑗𝑋𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 (𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 + (𝑋𝑆 + 𝑋𝐿 )2
The power delivered by the circuit to the load
𝑉𝑆2
𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅
(𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 + (𝑋𝑆 + 𝑋𝐿 )2 𝐿
The condition for maximum power transfer can be obtained by differentiating the above
expression for power delivered with respect to the load resistance (Since we want to find out the
value of RL for maximum power transfer) and equating it to zero as:
𝑑𝑃
=0
𝑑𝑅𝐿
2
(𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 + (𝑋𝑆 + 𝑋𝐿 )2 − 2𝑅𝐿 (𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑉𝑆 =0
((𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 + (𝑋𝑆 + 𝑋𝐿 )2 )2
2
𝑅𝑆2 + (𝑋𝑆 + 𝑋𝐿 )2 − 𝑅𝐿2
𝑉𝑆 =0
((𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 + (𝑋𝑆 + 𝑋𝐿 )2 )2
𝑅𝑆2 + (𝑋𝑆 + 𝑋𝐿 )2 − 𝑅𝐿2 = 0
𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑆2 + (𝑋𝑆 + 𝑋𝐿 )2
So the maximum power transfer takes place when the load resistance 𝑅𝐿 equals
𝑅𝑆2 + (𝑋𝑆 + 𝑋𝐿 )2.

Case-IV: AC system and load reactance variable of load impedance.

𝑍𝑆 = 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑗𝑋𝑆

𝑉𝑆 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑋𝐿

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Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑆
𝐼 = =
𝑅𝑆 + 𝑗𝑋𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 (𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 + (𝑋𝑆 + 𝑋𝐿 )2
The power delivered by the circuit to the load
2
𝑉𝑆2
𝑃 = 𝐼 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅
(𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 + (𝑋𝑆 + 𝑋𝐿 )2 𝐿
The condition for maximum power transfer can be obtained by differentiating the above
expression for power delivered with respect to the load reactance (Since we want to find out the
value of XL for maximum power transfer) and equating it to zero as:
𝑑𝑃
=0
𝑑𝑋𝐿
0 − 2(𝑋𝑆 + 𝑋𝐿 )
𝑉𝑆2 𝑅𝐿 =0
((𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 + (𝑋𝑆 + 𝑋𝐿 )2 )2
𝑋𝑆 + 𝑋𝐿 = 0
𝑋𝑆 = −𝑋𝐿
So the maximum power transfer takes place when the load reactance 𝑋𝐿 equals −𝑋𝐿 .

Case-V: AC system and both load resistance & load reactance variable of load impedance.
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑗𝑋𝑆

𝑉𝑆 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑋𝐿

𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑆
𝐼 = =
𝑅𝑆 + 𝑗𝑋𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 (𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 + (𝑋𝑆 + 𝑋𝐿 )2
The power delivered by the circuit to the load
2
𝑉𝑆2
𝑃 = 𝐼 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅
(𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 + (𝑋𝑆 + 𝑋𝐿 )2 𝐿
The condition for maximum power transfer can be obtained by first differentiating the above
expression for power delivered with respect to the load reactance and equating it to zero and
then differentiating the above expression after putting the value of 𝑋𝐿 derived in first condition
for power delivered with respect to the load resistance (Since we want to find out the value of ZL
for maximum power transfer) and equating it to zero as:
𝑑𝑃
=0
𝑑𝑋𝐿
0 − 2(𝑋𝑆 + 𝑋𝐿 )
𝑉𝑆2 𝑅𝐿 =0
((𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 + (𝑋𝑆 + 𝑋𝐿 )2 )2

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic
Unit-I: Network Theorems Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic

𝑋𝑆 + 𝑋𝐿 = 0
𝑋𝑆 = −𝑋𝐿
So the maximum power transfer takes place when the load reactance 𝑋𝐿 equals −𝑋𝐿 .
2
𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝑃= 𝑅
(𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 𝐿

𝑑𝑃
=0
𝑑𝑅𝐿
2
(𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 − 2𝑅𝐿 (𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑉𝑇𝐻 =0
(𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 )4
2
(𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 ) − 2𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑇𝐻 =0
(𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 )4
(𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 ) − 2𝑅𝐿 = 0
𝑅𝑇𝐻 − 𝑅𝐿 = 0
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 𝑅𝐿
So the maximum power transfer takes place when the load resistance 𝑍𝐿 equals (𝑅𝐿 − 𝑗𝑋𝐿 ), So
𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍𝑆∗ .

Prepared by Sanjoy Pondit, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ghatal Govt. Polytechnic