INTRODUCTION:

An Electric circuit is an interconnection of various elements in which there is at least one closed
path in which current can flow. An Electric circuit is used as a component for any engineering system.

The performance of any electrical device or machine is always studied by drawing its electrical
equivalent circuit. By simulating an electric circuit, any type of system can be studied for e.g.,
mechanical, hydraulic thermal, nuclear, traffic flow, weather prediction etc.

All control systems are studied by representing them in the form of electric circuits. The analysis, of
any system can be learnt by mastering the techniques of circuit theory.

The analysis of any system can be learnt by mastering the techniques of circuit theory.

Elements of an Electric circuit:

An Electric circuit consists of following types of elements.

Active elements:

Active elements are the elements of a circuit which possess energy of their own and can impart it to
other element of the circuit.

Active elements are of two types

a) Voltage source b) Current source

A Voltage source has a specified voltage across its terminals, independent of current flowing through
it.
A current source has a specified current through it independent of the voltage appearing across it.

Passive Elements:

The passive elements of an electric circuit do not possess energy of their own. They receive
energy from the sources. The passive elements are the resistance, the inductance and the capacitance.
When electrical energy is supplied to a circuit element, it will respond in one and more of the following
ways.

If the energy is consumed, then the circuit element is a pure resistor.

If the energy is stored in a magnetic field, the element is a pure inductor.

And if the energy is stored in an electric field, the element is a pure capacitor.
Linear and Non-Linear Elements.

Linear elements show the linear characteristics of voltage & current. That is its voltage-current
characteristics are at all-times a straight-line through the origin.

For example, the current passing through a resistor is proportional to the voltage applied
through its and the relation is expressed as V I or V = IR. A linear element or network is one which
satisfies the principle of superposition, i.e., the principle of homogeneity and additivity.

Resistors, inductors and capacitors are the examples of the linear elements and their
properties do not change with a change in the applied voltage and the circuit current.

Non linear element’s V-I characteristics do not follow the linear pattern i.e. the current passing
through it does not change linearly with the linear change in the voltage across it. Examples are the
semiconductor devices such as diode, transistor.

Bilateral and Unilateral Elements:

An element is said to be bilateral, when the same relation exists between voltage and current
for the current flowing in both directions.

Ex: Voltage source, Current source, resistance, inductance & capacitance.

The circuits containing them are called bilateral circuits.

An element is said to be unilateral, when the same relation does not exist between voltage
and current when current flowing in both directions. The circuits containing them are called unilateral
circuits.
Ex: Vacuum diodes, Silicon Diodes, Selenium Rectifiers etc.

Lumped and Distributed Elements

Lumped elements are those elements which are very small in size & in which simultaneous
actions takes place. Typical lumped elements are capacitors, resistors, inductors.

Distributed elements are those which are not electrically separable for analytical purposes.

For example a transmission line has distributed parameters along its length and may extend for
hundreds of miles.

The circuits containing them are called unilateral circuits.

Types of Sources:
Independent & Dependent sources:

If the voltage of the voltage source is completely independent source of current and the current
of the current source is completely independent of the voltage, then the sources are called as
independent sources.

The special kind of sources in which the source voltage or current depends on some other
quantity in the circuit which may be either a voltage or a current anywhere in the circuit are called
Dependent sources or Controlled sources.

There are four possible dependent sources:

a. Voltage dependent Voltage source

b. Current dependent Current source
c. Voltage dependent Current source
d. Current dependent Current source
 The constants of proportionalities are written as B, g, a, r in which B & a has no units, r has units
of ohm & g units of mhos.

Independent sources actually exist as physical entities such as battery, a dc generator & an
alternator. But dependent sources are used to represent electrical properties of electronic devices
such as OPAMPS & Transistors.

Ideal & Practical sources:

1. An ideal voltage source is one which delivers energy to the load at a constant terminal
voltage, irrespective of the current drawn by the load.

2. An ideal current source is one, which delivers energy with a constant current to the load,
irrespective of the terminal voltage across the load.

3. A Practical voltage source always possesses a very small value of internal resistance r. The
internal resistance of a voltage source is always connected in series with it & for a current
source; it is always connected in parallel with it. As the value of the internal resistance of a
practical voltage source is very small, its terminal voltage is assumed to be almost constant
within a certain limit of current flowing through the load.

4. A practical current source is also assumed to deliver a constant current, irrespective of the
terminal voltage across the load connected to it.
Ideal voltage source connected in series:

The equivalent single ideal voltage some is given by V= V1 + V2

Any number of ideal voltage sources connected in series can be represented by a single ideal
voltage some taking in to account the polarities connected together in to consideration.

Practical voltage source connected in series:

Ideal voltage source connected in parallel:

4
 When two ideal voltage sources of emf’s V1 & V2 are connected in parallel, what voltage appears
across its terminals is ambiguous.

Hence such connections should not be made.

However if V1 = V2= V, then the equivalent voltage some is represented by V.

In that case also, such a connection is unnecessary as only one voltage source serves the purpose.

Practical voltage sources connected in parallel:

Equivalent Circuit Single Equivalent

Voltage Source

Ideal current sources connected in series:

When ideal current sources are connected in series, what current flows through the line is
ambiguous. Hence such a connection is not permissible.

However, it I1 = I2 = I, then the current in the line is I.

But, such a connection is not necessary as only one current source serves the purpose.
Practical current sources connected in series:

Ideal current sources connected in parallel

Two ideal current sources in parallel can be replaced by a single equivalent ideal current source.

Practical current sources connected in parallel

Source transformation:

A current source or a voltage source drives current through its load resistance and the
magnitude of the current depends on the value of the load resistance.

Consider a practical voltage source and a practical current source connected to the same load
resistance RL as shown in the figure

R1’s in figure represents the internal resistance of the voltage source VS and current source IS.

Two sources are said to be identical, when they produce identical terminal voltage VL and load current
IL.

The circuit in figure represents a practical voltage source & a practical current source respectively, with
load connected to both the sources.

The terminal voltage VL and load current IL across their terminals are same.

Hence the practical voltage source & practical current source shown in the dotted box of figure are
equal.

The two equivalent sources should also provide the same open circuit voltage & short circuit current.

From fig (a) From fig (b)

IL = I
IL =

= I

VS = IR or I =
Hence a voltage source Vs in series with its internal resistance R can be converted into a current source

I = , with its internal resistance R connected in parallel with it. Similarly a current source I
in parallel with its internal resistance R can be converted into a voltage source V = IR in series with its
internal resistance R.

R-L-C Parameters:

1. Resistance:

Resistance is that property of a circuit element which opposes the flow of electric current and in
doing so converts electrical energy into heat energy.

It is the proportionality factor in ohm’s law relating voltage and current.

Ohm’s law states that the voltage drop across a conductor of given length and area of cross section is
directly proportional to the current flowing through it.

R œi

V=Ri

i= = GV

Where the reciprocal of resistance is called conductance G. The unit of resistance is ohm and the unit
of conductance is mho or Siemens.

When current flows through any resistive material, heat is generated by the collision of electrons with
other atomic particles. The power absorbed by the resistor is converted to heat and is given by the
expression

P= vi= i2R where i is the resistor in amps, and v is the voltage across the resistor in volts.

Energy lost in a resistance in time t is given by

W= t

2. Inductance:

Inductance is the property of a material by virtue of which it opposes any change of magnitude and
direction of electric current passing through conductor. A wire of certain length, when twisted into a
coil becomes a basic conductor. A change in the magnitude of the current changes the electromagnetic
field.
Increase in current expands the field & decrease in current reduces it. A change in current produces
change in the electromagnetic field. This induces a voltage across the coil according to Faradays laws of
Electromagnetic Induction.

Induced Voltage V = L

V = Voltage across inductor in volts

I = Current through inductor in amps

di = v dt

Integrating both sides,

Power absorbed by the inductor P = VI = Li

Energy stored by the inductor

W= = dt =

W=
Conclusions:

1) V = L

The induced voltage across an inductor is zero if the current through it is constant. That
means an inductor acts as short circuit to dc.

2) For minute change in current within zero time (dt = 0) gives an infinite voltage across the
inductor which is physically not at all feasible. In an inductor, the current cannot change abruptly. An
inductor behaves as open circuit just after switching across dc voltage.

3) The inductor can store finite amount of energy, even if the voltage across the inductor is zero.
4) A pure inductor never dissipates energy, it only stores it. Hence it is also called as a non–
dissipative passive element. However, physical inductor dissipates power due to internal resistance.
Ex: The current in a 2H inductor raises at a rate of 2A/s .Find the voltage across the inductor the
energy stored in the magnetic field at after 2sec.

Sol:
V=L

= 2X2 = 4V
 = = 16 J
W Li2 = X 2 X (4)2

3. Capacitance:

1) A capacitor consists of two metallic surfaces or conducting surfaces separated by a

dielectric medium.
2) It is a circuit element which is capable of storing electrical energy in its electric field.
3) Capacitance is its capacity to store electrical energy.
4) Capacitance is the proportionality constant relating the charge on the conducting plates
to the potential.

Charge on the capacitor q V

q = CV

Where `C` is the capacitance in farads, if q is charge in coulombs and V is the potential
difference across the capacitor in volts.
The current flowing in the circuit is rate of flow of charge

i= =C

The capacitance of a capacitor depends on the dielectric medium & the physical
dimensions. For a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance

C= = €0 €r

A is the surface area of plates D is the separation between plates

€ is the absolute permeability of medium€0 is the absolute permeability of free

space €r is the relative permeability of medium

i= =C

V=

The power absorbed by the capacitor P = vi = vc

Energy stored in the capacitor W = = dt

= C = Joules
 This energy is stored in the electric field set up by the voltage across capacitor.

Conclusions:

1. The current in a capacitor is zero, if the voltage across it is constant, that means the
capacitor acts as an open circuit to dc
2. A small change in voltage across a capacitance within zero time gives an infinite current
through the capacitor, which is physically impossible.
In a fixed capacitor, the voltage cannot change abruptly
A capacitor behaves as short circuit just after switching across dc voltage.
3. The capacitor can store a finite amount of energy, even if the current through it is zero.
4. A pure capacitor never dissipates energy but only stores it hence it is called non-dissipative
element.

Kirchhoff`s Laws:

Kirchhoff’s laws are more comprehensive than Ohm's law and are used for solving electrical
networks which may not be readily solved by the latter.

Kirchhoff`s laws, two in number, are particularly useful in determining the equivalent resistance
of a complicated network of conductors and for calculating the currents flowing in the various
conductors.

1. Kirchhoff`s Current Law (KCL)

In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point (or junction) is
Zero.

That is the total current entering a junction is equal to the total current leaving that junction.

Consider the case of a network shown in Fig (a).

I1+(-I2)+(I3)+(+I4)+(-I5) = 0

I1+I4-I2-I3-I5 = 0

Or

I1+I4 = I2+I3+I5

Or

Incoming currents =Outgoing currents

2. Kirchhoff's Mesh Law or Voltage Law (KVL)

In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in each
of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the algebraic sum of the
e.m.f.’s. in that path is zero.

That is, ∑IR + ∑e.m.f = 0 round a mesh

It should be noted that algebraic sum is the sum which takes into account the polarities of the
voltage drops.

That is, if we start from a particular junction and go round the mesh till we come back to the
starting point, then we must be at the same potential with which we started.

Hence, it means that all the sources of emf met on the way must necessarily be equal to the
voltage drops in the resistances, every voltage being given its proper sign, plus or minus.

Determination of Voltage Sign

In applying Kirchhoff's laws to specific problems, particular attention should be paid to the
algebraic signs of voltage drops and e.m.fs.

(a) Sign of Battery E.M.F.

A rise in voltage should be given a + ve sign and a fall in voltage a -ve sign. That is, if we go from
the -ve terminal of a battery to its +ve terminal there is a rise in potential, hence this voltage
should be given a + ve sign.

And on the other hand, we go from +ve terminal to -ve terminal, then there is a fall in potential,
hence this voltage should be preceded by a -ve sign.

The sign of the battery e.m.f is independent of the direction

of the current through that branch.

(b) Sign of IR Drop

Now, take the case of a resistor (Fig. 2.4). If we go through a resistor in the same direction as
the
current, then there is a fall in potential because current flows from a higher to a lower
potential..
Hence, this voltage fall should be taken -ve. However, if we go in a direction opposite to that of
the
current, then there is a rise in voltage. Hence, this voltage rise should be given a positive sign.

Consider the closed path ABCDA in Fig .

As we travel around the mesh in the clockwise direction, different voltage drops will have the
following signs :

I1R1 is - ve (fall in potential)

I2R2 is - ve (fall in potential)
I3R3 is + ve (rise in potential)
I4R4 is - ve (fall in potential)
E2 is - ve (fall in potential)
E1 is + ve (rise in potential)

Using Kirchhoff's voltage law, we get

 -I1R1 – I2R2 – I3R3 – I4 R4 – E2 + E1 = 0

Or I1R1 + I2R2 – I3R3 + I4R4 = E1 –E2

Assumed Direction of Current:

In applying Kirchhoff's laws to electrical networks, the direction of current flow may be
assumed either clockwise or anticlockwise. If the assumed direction of current is not the actual
direction, then on solving the question, the current will be found to have a minus sign.
If the answer is positive, then assumed direction is the same as actual direction.
However, the important point is that once a particular direction has been assumed, the same
should be used throughout the solution of the question.

Kirchhoff's laws are applicable both to d.c. and a.c. voltages and currents. However, in the case
of alternating currents and voltages, any e.m.f. of self-inductance or that existing across a
capacitor should be also taken into account.
 VOLTAGE-CURRENT RELATIONSHIPS FOR PASSIVE ELEMENTS

The Three Passive Elements are Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance. The behavior of these three elements along
with the respective voltage-current relationship is given in the table.

Element Basic Relation Voltage across, If Current Known Current through, If Voltage Known
𝑉 VR (t)=R iR(t) VR (t)
iR(t)=
R R= 𝑅
𝐼
𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 1 𝑡
VL(t)=L iL(t)=𝐿 ∫−∞ 𝑉(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑁∅ 𝑑𝑡
L
L=
𝐼
𝑄 1 𝑡
VC(t)=𝐶 ∫−∞ 𝑖𝐶 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 iC(t)=C
𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
𝐶= 𝑑𝑡
C 𝑉

Table

1. A current waveform flowing through an inductor of 1mH is shown in the figure. Obtain and sketch the waveform
of voltage across the inductor.

Solution:

From the given waveform,

For 0<t<2, i(t) is a straight line of slope=(100/2)=50

𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
Therefore, i(t)=50t and 𝑑𝑡
=50

𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
For 2<t<4, i(t)=100 and 𝑑𝑡
=0

For 4<t<6, i(t) is a straight line of slope=-(100/2)=-50

𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
Therefore, i(t)=-50t and 𝑑𝑡
=-50
 𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
Now, VL(t) =L 𝑑𝑡

=1*10-3*50=0.05V 0<t<2

=1*10-3*0=0V 2<t<4

=1*10-3*(-50) =-0.05V 4<t<6

The voltage waveform is shown in following figure.

2. A 0.5uF capacitor has voltage waveform v(t) as shown in following figure, plot i(t) as function of t ?

Solution:

From the given waveform,

For 0<t<2, v(t) is a ramp of slope =(40/2)=20

Therefore v(t)=20t
𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
Therefore i(t)=C 𝑑𝑡
=0.5*10-6*20=1*10-5A=10uA

For 2<t<4, v(t) is constant

Therefore v(t)=40V
 𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
Therefore i(t)=C 𝑑𝑡
=0.5*10-6*0=0A

0−40
For 4<t<8, v(t) is a ramp with slope = 8−4
= −10

Therefore v(t)=-10t+80 (According to straight line equation i.e. y=mx+c)

𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
Therefore i(t)=C 𝑑𝑡
=0.5*10-6*(-10)=-5uA

The current waveform is shown in following figure

3. A Pure Inductance Of 3mh Carries A Current Of The Waveform Shown In Fig. Sketch The Waveform Of V (t) And
P(t).Determine The Average Value Of Power

Fig

Solution:

i (t)=5t for 0<t<2

i (t)=10 for 2<t<4

i (t)=-10t+50 for 4<t<6

i (t)=-10 for 6<t<8

 i (t)=5t-50 for 8<t<10
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
For 0<t<2, VL(t)=L 𝑑𝑡

𝑑(5𝑡)
=3*10-3 𝑑𝑡

=15*10-3v
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
For 2<t<4, VL(t)=L 𝑑𝑡

𝑑(10)
=3*10-3 𝑑𝑡

=0v
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
For 4<t<6, VL(t)=L
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(−10𝑡+50)
=3*10-3
𝑑𝑡

=-30*10-3v
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
For 6<t<8, VL(t)=L 𝑑𝑡

𝑑(−10)
=3*10-3
𝑑𝑡

=0v
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
For 8<t<10, VL(t)=L 𝑑𝑡

𝑑(5𝑡−50)
=3*10-3
𝑑𝑡

=15*10-3v

The sketch of v(t) is shown in fig.

Fig.
For 0<t<2, P(t)=v(t)i(t)

=75*10-3t W

For 2<t<4, P(t)=v(t)i(t)

=0W

For 4<t<6, P(t)=v(t)i(t)

=-30*(-10t+50)*10-3=-0.3W (at t=4)

=0W (at t=5)

=0.3W (at t=6)

For 6<t<8, P(t)=v(t)i(t)

=0W

For 8<t<10, P(t)=v(t)i(t)

=15*(5t-50)*10-3=-0.15W (at t=8)

=-0.075W (at t=9)

=0W (at t=10)

4. Draw the waveforms for current, power for the following elements if a voltage input shown in figure is applied to
these elements.

i. R=1 OHM
ii. L=1H
iii. C=1F

SOLUTION:
20−0
From the figure, v (t) is a straight line with slope = 1−0
=20, For 0<t<1

Therefore v (t) =20t

i. R=1 OHM
The voltage and current relation of a resistor is given by, v (t) =R i(t)
i(t) =20t/1=20t

Hence,

When t=0, i(t)=0A

When t=0.5, i(t)=10A

When t=1, i(t)=20A

Therefore the current waveform for the above values of t and i(t) is shown in figure below
 Power, p(t)=v(t)i(t)

=20t*20t=400t2 W

Hence,

When t=0, p(t)=v(t)i(t)=0W

When t=0.4, p(t)=v(t)i(t)=64W

When t=0.8, p(t)=v(t)i(t)=256W

When t=, p(t)=v(t)i(t)=400W

Therefore the power wave form for the above values of t and p(t) is shown in below figure.

ii. L=1 H
The voltage and current relation of a inductor is given by,
1 𝑡
i(t)=𝐿 ∫−∞ 𝑉(𝑡)𝑑𝑡

1 0 𝑡
i(t)=1 [∫−∞ 𝑉(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + ∫0 𝑉(𝑡)𝑑𝑡]
 𝑡 𝑡
i(t)=0+∫0 𝑉(𝑡)𝑑𝑡=∫0 20𝑡𝑑𝑡 =10t2

Therefore the current waveform is shown in below figure.

Power, p(t)=v(t)i(t)=20t*10t2=200t3 W

Therefore the power waveform is shown in below figure

iii. C=1 F
The voltage and current relation of a inductor is given by
𝑑𝑉(𝑡)
i(t)=C
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(20𝑡)
i(t)=1* 𝑑𝑡
=20A
Therefore the current waveform is shown in below figure

Power, p(t)=v(t)i(t)=20t*20=400t W

Therefore the power waveform is shown in below figure.