Network Theorems

(Applicable for both DC and AC supply)

Types of Electric Circuit Elements

Linear elements:

In an electric circuit, a linear element is an electrical element with a

linear relationship between current and voltage. Resistors are the

most common example of a linear element; other examples include

capacitors, inductors.

Non-linear elements:

1
A nonlinear element is one which does not have a linear

input/output relation. In a diode, for example, the current is a non-

linear function of the voltage.

Passive element

The element which receives energy (or absorbs energy) and the

either converts it into heat or stored it in an electric or magnetic

field called Passive element. Example: Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor

etc.

Passive network are the networks consist of circuit elements without

any energy sources.

Active element

2
The elements which supply energy to the circuit is called Active

element. Examples: Include Voltage and Current sources,

Generators etc.

Active network containing energy sources together with the other

circuit elements.

Bilateral element

Conduction of current in both directions in an element with same

magnitude is termed as Bilateral Element. Example: Resistor,

Inductor, Capacitor etc.

The above figure shows a bilateral element can conduct from both

sides and offers same resistance for current from either side.

3
Unilateral element

Conduction of current in one direction is termed as unilateral

element. Example: Diode, Transistor etc.

4
Lumped elements

When the voltage across and current through the element doesn't

vary with dimension of element, it is called Lumped elements.

Example: Resistor connected in any electrical circuit.

A network in which physically separate resistors, capacitors and

inductors can be represented is known as Lumped network.

Distributed Element

When the voltage across and current through the element changes

with dimension of element, it is called Distributed Element.

Example: Resistance of the transmission line.

5
A network in which resistors, capacitors and inductors cannot be

electrically separated and individually isolated as separate elements

is known as Distributed network.

Sources of Electrical Energy

There are two types of sources of electrical energy: ideal voltage

source and ideal current source.

6
An ideal voltage source is two-terminal element which maintains a

constant terminal voltage regardless of the value of the current

through its terminals. The terminal voltage of ideal voltage source is

independent of the current flowing through it. It has zero resistance.

An ideal voltage source and its V-I characteristic

7
An ideal voltage source has following features: -

1) The output voltage remains absolutely constant whatever be the

value of the output current.

2) It has zero internal resistance so that voltage drop in the source is

zero.

3) The power drawn by the source is zero.

In a practical voltage source, voltage across the terminals of the

source keeps falling as the current through it increases. This

behavior can be explained by putting a resistance in series with an

ideal voltage source. Then we have the terminal voltage VOUT as

VOUT = VS - iRS

Where i is the current flowing and RS the internal resistance of the

ideal voltage source of voltage VS. The practical voltage source

approaches the ideal voltage source in the limit RS becoming zero.

8
 A practical voltage source and V-I characteristic

An Independent / Ideal current source is a two-terminal circuit

element which supplies the same current to any load resistance

connected across its terminals regardless of the value of the terminal

9
voltage. It is important to keep in mind that the current supplied by

the current source is independent of the voltage of source terminals.

It has infinite resistance.

An ideal current source and its V-I characteristic

An ideal current source has following features:-

1) It produces a constant current irrespective of the value of the

voltage across it.

2) It has infinite resistance.

3) It is capable of supplying infinite power.

In a practical current source, the current through the source

decreases as the voltage across it increases. This behavior can be

10
explained by putting a resistance across the terminals of the source.

Then the terminal current is given by

I1= I- (V1/R)

A practical current source is represented as an ideal current source

connected with the resistance in parallel. The symbolic

representation is shown below:

A practical current source and its V-I characteristic

11
Source Transformation

12
An ideal voltage source is one which gives a constant voltage vS

irrespective of the current drawn from it (source resistance or

impedance is zero i.e. slope is zero).

An ideal current source is one which gives a constant current

irrespective of the voltage across it (source resistance or impedance

is infinite i.e. slope is infinity).

Referring to the first Fig., output voltage at the terminal a, b is

v1= vS – i1R

Referring to the second figure, the current flowing in the resistance

R will be (iS- i1), so that voltage at the terminal a, b is

v1= (iS – i1)R

In order that the circuit in first and second figure are equivalent,

vS = iSR

Hence, if it is required to convert voltage source vS in series with an

internal resistance R into an equivalent current source, it is done by

13
replacing the voltage source with a current source of value (vS/R),

placed in parallel with a resistance R.

For practical current source as in the figure above, the current

flowing through a resistor is (iS- i1). Therefore

i1 = iS- v1/R

14
In the limit R tends to ∞, i1 tends to iS.

Some basic definitions of electric circuit

Elements that generally encounter in an electric circuit can be

interconnected in various possible ways. Before discussing the basic

analytical tools that determine the currents and voltages at different

parts of the circuit, some basic definition of the following terms is

considered.

Node is a point in an electric circuit where, terminal of two or more

circuit elements are connected together. Node is a junction point in

the circuit.

15
A branch is the conducting path between two nodes. The short

circuit between two nodes is not referred as branch of electric

circuit.

Loop- A loop is any closed path in an electric circuit.

16
Fig. below shows three loops or closed paths namely, a-b-g-a; b-c-g-

b; and a-b-c-a. Further, it may be noted that the outside closed

paths a-c-g-a and a-b-c-g-a are also form two loops.

Mesh- a mesh is a special case of loop that does not have any other

loops within it or in its interior.

17
Fig. above indicates that the first three loops (a-b-g-a; b-c-g-b; and

a-b-c-a) just identified are also ‘meshes’ but other two loops (a-c-g-a

and a-b-c-g-a) are not.

Solution of Electric Circuit Based on Mesh (Loop) Current

Method

The Series-parallel reduction technique for analyzing circuit

simplifies every step logically from the preceding step and leads on

logically to the next step.

DC Series Parallel Circuit

18
Unfortunately, if the circuit is complicated, this method (the

simplification and reconstruct) becomes mathematically laborious,

time consuming and likely to produce mistake in calculations.

One most popular technique is known as ‘mesh or loop’ analysis

method that based on the fundamental principles of circuits laws,

namely, Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s voltage law.

Mesh analysis

Mesh analysis (or mesh current method) is a method that is used to

solve circuits for the currents (and indirectly the voltages) at any

place in the circuit. Mesh analysis works by arbitrarily assigning

19
mesh currents in the essential meshes. An essential mesh is a loop in

the circuit that does not contain any other loop.

Steps to determine Mesh currents

1. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, …………in to the n meshes.

Current direction need to be same in all meshes either

clockwise or anticlockwise.

2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes.

3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the

mesh currents.

The generalized mesh equations can be written as

[Z][I] = [E]

Where the square matrix Z is called the impedance matrix, having

zij as elements i= 1,2,…..m and j=1,2,……m, and E is the column

matrix of the input voltages E = 1,2,…..m. The elements zij of the

impedance matrix Z is

20
 (i) Zii, the self-impedance of the ith mesh

(ii) Zij, the mutual impedance between the ith and jth meshes.

I is the mesh current vector of order (mx1), and E is the input

voltage vector of order (mx1).

Considering a generalized network with m number of meshes, the

mesh equations using KVL as

𝑍11 𝑍12 ⋯ 𝑍1𝑚 𝐼1 𝐸1

𝑍21 𝑍22 … 𝑍2𝑚 𝐼2 𝐸
. . . [ ]= [ 2]
𝑍𝑚1 𝑍𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑍𝑚𝑚 . .
[ ] 𝐼𝑚 𝐸3

For networks containing current source only, convert the current

source to voltage source by source transformation. The voltage

source will remain same. For networks having only passive elements

and without any dependent source, the impedance matrix becomes

symmetric, i.e. zij = zji.

21
 Figure for Mesh Analysis

The mesh or loop method of analysis is illustrated in the above

circuit, where three mesh currents I1, I2 and I3 are assumed and

given reference directions by arrows. Here only voltage sources are

present. The algebraic summation of voltages by KVL

In mesh I,

-I1Z1 - (I1-I2)Z3 +E1 = 0

Or

(Z1+Z2)I1 +(-Z3)I2 +(0)I3 = E1 ………….(1)

In mesh II

22
-I2Z2 -(I2-I1)Z3 -(I2-I3)Z4 -I2Z5 = 0

Or

(-Z3)I1 +(Z2+Z3+Z4+Z5)I2 +(-Z4)I3 = 0 ……….(2)

In mesh III

-I3Z6 -(I3-I2)Z4 -E2 = 0

Or

(0)I1 +(-Z4)I2 +(Z4+Z6)I3 = -E2 ………(3)

Or

We can write equations (1), (2) and (3) in the matrix form as
𝑍1 + 𝑍3 −𝑍3 0 𝐼1 𝐸1
[ −𝑍3 𝑍2 + 𝑍3 + 𝑍4 + 𝑍5 −𝑍4 ] [𝐼2 ] = [ 0 ]
0 −𝑍4 𝑍4 + 𝑍6 𝐼3 −𝐸2

Now by Cramer’s rule

1 𝐸1 −𝑍3 0
𝐼1 = | 0 𝑍2 + 𝑍3 + 𝑍4 + 𝑍5 −𝑍4 |
∆ −𝐸 −𝑍4 𝑍4 + 𝑍6
2

23
 𝑍1 + 𝑍3 𝐸1 0
1
𝐼2 = | −𝑍3 0 −𝑍4 |
∆
0 −𝐸2 𝑍4 + 𝑍6
And

1
𝑍1 + 𝑍3 −𝑍3 𝐸1
𝐼3 = | −𝑍3 𝑍2 + 𝑍3 + 𝑍4 + 𝑍5 0 |
∆
0 −𝑍4 −𝐸2

Where
𝑍1 + 𝑍3 −𝑍3 0
∆ = | −𝑍3 𝑍2 + 𝑍3 + 𝑍4 + 𝑍5 −𝑍4 |
0 −𝑍4 𝑍4 + 𝑍6

Example: To apply Mesh Analysis Method in Super Mesh.

A super mesh occurs when a current source is contained between

two essential meshes. The circuit is first treated as if the current

source is not there. This leads to one equation that incorporates two

mesh currents. Once this equation is formed, an equation is needed

that relates the two mesh currents with the current source. This will

be an equation where the current source is equal to one of the mesh

currents minus the other.

24
The following is a simple example of dealing with a super mesh.

Solve the following circuit using Mesh Analysis or Loop Current

Method:

Here,

Equations for Mesh with mesh current I2:

2I2 + 6(I2 - I3) + 4(I2 – I1) = 2

Or, -4I1 +12I2 -6I3 = 2
Equation for the combined I1, I3 mesh (Because it is a super mesh)

is:

25
4(I1 – I2) +6(I3 - I2) = 12 -10

Or, 4I1 – 10I2 + 6I3 = 2

And

Thus, solving these equations:

Solution of Electric Circuit Based on Network Theorems

Superposition Theorem

The superposition theorem for electrical circuits states that for a

linear system the response (voltage or current) in any branch of a

bilateral linear circuit having more than one independent source

equals the algebraic sum of the responses caused by each

independent source acting alone, where all the other independent

sources are replaced by their internal impedances.

To ascertain the contribution of each individual source, all of the

other sources first must be "turned off" (set to zero) by:

26
  Replacing all other independent voltage sources with a short

circuit (thereby eliminating difference of potential i.e. V=0;

internal impedance of ideal voltage source is zero (short

circuit).

 Replacing all other independent current sources with an open

circuit (thereby eliminating current i.e. I=0; internal

impedance of ideal current source is infinite (open circuit)).

Note:

1. The principle of superposition is useful for linearity test of the

system or network.

2. A linear network comprises independent sources, and linear

passive elements.

27
28
29
30
Limitations of Superposition Theorem
Superposition theorem cannot be applied for nonlinear circuit

(consists of Diode, Transistor).

This method has weaknesses: -

In order to calculate load current, I or the load voltage V for the

several choices of load resistance R of the resistive network, one

needs to solve for every source voltage and current, perhaps several
31
times. With the simple circuit, this is fairly easy but in a large circuit

this method becomes a painful experience.

Keep in mind that superposition is based on linearity. For this

reason, it is not applicable to the effect on power due to each source.

We can’t apply superposition theorem directly in order to find the

amount of power delivered to any resistor that is present in a linear

circuit, just by doing the addition of powers delivered to that

resistor due to each independent source. Rather, we can calculate

either total current flowing through or voltage across that resistor

by using superposition theorem and from that, we can calculate the

amount of power delivered to that resistor using I2R or V2/ R. Dr.

Example: 1
Find the current in R of Figure 1 internal source impedances are

zero using the superposition theorem. Assume the internal source

impedance is zero.

32
 Figure 1

Solution

Step 1: Replace Vs2, with its internal impedance (zero), and find the

current in R due to Vs1, as indicated in Figure 2.

Figure 2

33
Step2: Find the current in R due to source Vs2, by replacing Vs1,

with its internal impedance (zero), as shown in Figure 3.

34
 Figure 3

Step 3. Convert the two individual resistor currents to rectangular

form and add to get the total current through R.

35
lR1 = 2.60 + jl.38 mA

lR2 = 4.15 + j2.20 mA

IR = IR1 +lR2= 6.75 + j3.58 mA

Example 2 Find the current through j3Ω inductive reactance using

the principle of superposition.

Answer

Thevenin’s Theorem

36
  Mesh current method needs 3 equations to be solved

 Superposition method requires a complete solution through

load resistance (RL) by considering each independent source

at a time and replacing other sources by their internal

source resistances.

If the value of RL is changed, then in case of Superposition theorem

each time the load resistance RL is changed, the entire circuit has to

be analyzed all over again. Much of the tedious mathematical work

can be avoided if the fixed part of circuit or in other words, the

circuit contained inside the imaginary fence or black box with two

37
terminals A&B, is replaced by the simple equivalent voltage source

(as shown in fig. below) or current source (as shown in fig. below).

Thevenin’s theorem tells that:

An active linear network having two terminals can be replaced with

an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source E and in series

38
with an internal impedance Z. The value of E is the open circuit

voltage between A and B, Z is the impedance of the network

measured between A and B with the load disconnected and the

energy sources replaced by their internal impedances.

In the Figure above E = VTH and Z = ZTH.

1. Thevenin’s theorem provides a method for simplifying a circuit

to a standard equivalent form.

2. The Thevenin equivalent voltage (VTh) is the open circuit voltage

(no-load) voltage between two terminals in a circuit. When a

particular branch is removed from a circuit, the open circuit

39
 voltage appears across the terminals of the circuit, is Thevenin

equivalent voltage (VTh).

3. The Thevenin equivalent impedance (ZTh) is the total impedance

of the circuit appearing between two terminals in a given

network with.

4. The load current is calculated as

Where, ZL is the Load impedance and ZTh is the internal impedance

of the circuit as viewed back into the open circuited network from

terminal A & B with all voltage sources replaced by their internal

impedances, and current sources with infinite impedance.

Proof: Verify Thevenin’s Theorem

40
 Fig. Network illustrates the Thevenin’s Theorem

It is required to determine the current through a load of resistance

R connected across AB.

Step1. Remove load resistor R

With the load disconnected as in Fig. (b)

Step2. Determine r or RTh

41
Figure(c) shows the network with the load disconnected and the

battery replaced by its internal resistance R1. Resistance of network

between A and B is

Step3. Determine VTh or E.

Since there is no current through R2, potential difference across AB

is

Here V = VTh

42
Step4. Determine the load current

Thevenin’s theorem merely states that the active network enclosed

by the dotted line in Fig.(a) can be replaced by the very simple

circuit enclosed by the dotted line in Fig.(d) and consisting of a

source having an e.m.f. E equal to the open-circuit potential

difference V between A and B, and an internal resistance r, where V

and r have the values determined above. Hence

Limitations of Thevenin’s Theorem

• If the circuit consists of nonlinear elements, this theorem is not

applicable.

• Also, to the unilateral networks it is not applicable.

• There should not be magnetic coupling between the load and the

circuit to be replaced with the Thevenin’s equivalent.

Remarks:

43
(i) One great advantage of Thevenin’s theorem over the normal

circuit reduction technique or any other technique is this: once the

Thevenin equivalent circuit has been formed, it can be reused in

calculating load current (IL), load voltage (VL) and load power (PL)

for different loads.

(ii) Fortunately, with help of this theorem one can find the choice of

load resistance RL that results in the maximum power transfer to

the load. On the other hand, the effort necessary to solve this

problem-using node or mesh analysis methods can be quite complex

and tedious from computational point of view.

Example 1

Find the current flowing through the 2ohm resistor using

Thevenin’s Theorem.

44
45
The current flowing through the 2ohm resistor is given by

considering the following network

𝟑𝟎−𝟏𝟖𝟎°
𝑰𝑳 = Amp.
𝟐𝟒−𝟗𝟎°+𝟐

Norton’s Theorem

46
A linear two terminal network consists of active and passive

components can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a

current source IN in parallel with admittance YN. The value of IN is

the short –circuit current between the terminals of the network and

YN is the admittance measured between terminals with energy

sources eliminated by their respective internal impedances.

Figure (a) circuit is a linear two terminal circuit. According to

Norton’s theorem we replace this circuit by a current source and an

equivalent resistance that is shown in figure (b).

Original circuit (b) Norton’s Equivalent Circuit

Norton’s Theorem Summary:

47
The basic procedure for solving a circuit using Norton’s Theorem is

as follows:

1. Remove the load.

2. Find YN by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting all

the current sources.

3. Find IN by placing a shorting link on the output

terminals A and B.

4. Find the current flowing through the load.

Find out the current through RL by applying Norton theorem.

48
Step1: Remove the resistor RL from terminals A and B and make

the terminals A and B short circuited by zero resistance.

Step 2: Calculate the short circuit current or Norton equivalent

current IN through the points A and B.

The equivalent resistance of the network,

49
Step 3: Determine internal resistance or Norton equivalent resistance

RN of the network under consideration, remove the branch between

A and B and also replace the voltage source by its internal

resistance. Now the equivalent resistance as viewed from open

terminals A and B is RN,

As per Norton theorem, when resistance RL is reconnected across

terminals A and B, the network behaves as a source of constant

current IN with shunt connected internal resistance RN and this is

Norton equivalent circuit.

Norton Equivalent Circuit

50
Remarks:

(i) Similar to the Thevenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem has also a

similar advantage over the normal circuit reduction technique or

any other technique when it is used to calculate load current (IL),

load voltage (VL) and load power (PL) for different loads.

(ii)Fortunately, with help of either Norton’s theorem or Thevenin’s

theorem one can find the choice of load resistance RL that result in

the maximum power transfer to the load.

(iii) Norton’s current source may be replaced by an equivalent

Thevenin’s voltage source. The magnitude of voltage source (VTh)

51
and its internal resistances (RTh) are expressed by the following

relations

VTh =IN x RN; RTh = RN (with proper polarities at the terminals)

In other words, a source transformation converts a Thevenin

equivalent circuit into a Norton equivalent circuit or vice-verse.

Relation between Norton’s and Thevenin’s Theorems

Norton’s equivalent circuit of a linear network constitutes a Norton

current source IN in parallel with a resistance RN. Therefore, it is

possible to perform a source transformation of Norton’s equivalent

circuit to get the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit or vice-versa.

52
The magnitude of the voltage source (Vth) and a series resistance

(Rth) from Norton’s equivalent circuit using source transformation

are determined as

Vth = RN × IN and Rth = RN

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

 In any electric circuit, the electrical energy from the supply is

delivered to the load where it is used to some useful work.

 Practically, the entire supplid power will not present at load

due to the heating effect and other constraints in the nework.

53
 Electric network delivering electrical energy from source to load

 Therefore, here exist a certain difference between drawing

power and delivering powers.

 The load always affects the amount of power transferred from

the supply source, i.e. any change in the load resistance results

to change in power transfer to the load. Thus , the maximum

power transfer theorem ensures the condition to transfer the

maximum power to the load.

The maximum power transfer theorem states that in a linear,

bilateral DC network, maximum power is delivered to the load when

the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of a source.

54
If it is an independent voltage source, then its series resistance

(internal resistance Rs) or if it is independent current source, then

its parallel resistance (internal resistance Rs) must equal to the load

resistance RL to deliver maximum power to the load.

Proof of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

The maximum power transfer theorem ensures the value of the load

resistance, at which the maximum power is transferred to the load.

Consider the below DC two terminal network (left side circuit) , to

which the condition for maximum power is determined, by

obtaining the expression of power absorbed by load with use of

mesh or nodal current methods and then deriving the resulting

expression with respect to load resistance RL. But this is quite a

55
complex procedure. But in previous articles we have seen that the

complex part of the network can be replaced with a Thevenin’s

equivalent as shown below.

The original two terminal circuits are replaced with a Thevenin’s

equivalent circuit across the variable load resistance. The current

through the load for any value of load resistance is

56
Form the above expression the power delivered depends on the

values of RTH and RL. However, the Thevenin’s equivalent is

constant, the power delivered from this equivalent source to the load

entirely depends on the load resistance RL. To find the exact value of

RL, we apply differentiation to PL with respect to RL and equating it

to zero as

Therefore, this is the condition of matching the load where the

maximum power transfer occurs when the load resistance is equal to

the Thevenin’s resistance of the circuit. By substituting the Rth = RL

in equation 1 we get

The maximum power delivered to the load is,

57
Total power transferred from source is

PT = VTh x IL = IL(RTh + RL) x IL = IL2 (RTH + RL)

= 2 IL2 RL …………….(2)

Hence, the maximum power transfer theorem expresses the state at

which maximum power is delivered to the load, that is, when the

load resistance is equal to the Thevenin’s equivalent resistance of

the circuit. Below figure shows a curve of power delivered to the

load with respect to the load resistance. Note that the power

delivered is zero when the load resistance is zero as there is no

voltage drop across the load during this condition. The power is of

maximum when the load resistance is equal to the internal

resistance of the circuit (or Thevenin’s equivalent resistance). Again,

58
the power is zero as the load resistance reaches to infinity as there is

no current flow through the load.

Power Transfer Efficiency

This theorem results maximum power transfer but not a maximum

efficiency. If the load resistance is smaller than source resistance,

power dissipated at the load is reduced while most of the power is

dissipated at the source then the efficiency becomes lower. Consider

the total power delivered from source equation (equation 2), in

which the power is dissipated in the equivalent Thevenin’s

resistance RTH by the voltage source VTH.

59
Therefore, the efficiency under the condition of maximum power

transfer is

Efficiency = (Output / Input) × 100

= ( IL2 RL / 2 IL2 RL) × 100

= 50 %

Hence, at the condition of maximum power transfer, the efficiency is

50%, that means a half percentage of generated power is delivered

to the load and at other conditions small percentage of power is

delivered to the load, as indicated in efficiency verses maximum

power transfer the curves above.

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem for AC Circuits

In an active network, the maximum power is transferred to the load

when the load impedance is equal to the complex conjugate of an

equivalent impedance of a given network as viewed from the load

terminals.

60
Consider the above Thevenin’s equivalent circuit across the load

terminals in which the current flowing through the circuit is given

as

I = VTH / ZTH + ZL

Where ZL = RL + jXL

ZTH = RTH + jXTH

Therefore,

I = VTH / (RL + jXL + RTH + jXTH )

= VTH / ((RL+ RTH) + j(XL + XTH ))

|I| = |VTH| / ((RL+ RTH)2 + (XL + XTH )2)0.5

The power delivered to the load,

PL = |I|2 RL

PL = | VTH |2 x RL / (RL+ RTH)2 + (XL + XTH )2 ……(1)

61
For maximum power the derivative of the above equation must be

zero,

dP/dRL = 0 and dP/dXL = 0

2
2𝑉𝑇𝐻 𝑅𝐿 (𝑋𝑇𝐻 +𝑋𝐿 )
Now dP/dXL = [(𝑅𝑇𝐻 +𝑅𝐿 )2 +(𝑋𝑇𝐻 +𝑋𝐿 )2 ][(𝑅𝑇𝐻 +𝑅𝐿 )2 +(𝑋𝑇𝐻 +𝑋𝐿 )2 ]
= 0

Or XTH + XL = 0 or XTH = -XL (1)

Substitute this value in power

2
𝑉𝑇𝐻 𝑅𝐿
𝑃=
(𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 )2

Now dP/dRL = 0

2 2
𝑉𝑇𝐻 (𝑅𝑇𝐻 +𝑅𝐿 )2 − 2𝑉𝑇𝐻 𝑅𝐿 (𝑅𝑇𝐻 +𝑅𝐿 )
then dP/dRL= =0
(𝑅𝑇𝐻 +𝑅𝐿 )2

or (RTH +RL) – 2RL = 0 or RL = RTH (2)

From (1) and (2)

62
ZL = RL +jXL = RTH - jXTH = 𝑍̃ = complex conjugate of ZTH for

maximum power transfer.

Under this condition, the circuit current is

𝑉𝑇𝐻 𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝐼= =
(𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑗𝑋𝑇𝐻 )(𝑅𝐿 − 𝑗𝑋𝐿 ) 2𝑅𝑇𝐻

The maximum power loss in load,

Pmax = |I|2 RL = |VTH|2 / 4 RTH or |VTH |2 / 4 RL

Condition for maximum current, maximum voltage and

maximum power in load

63
Power Transfer Efficiency

The theorem results in maximum power transfer but not a

maximum efficiency.

The graph concludes the followings:

 If the load resistance is smaller than source resistance, power

dissipated at the load is reduced than the power generated at

the source then the efficiency becomes lower.

 when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of

the circuit or source (or Thevenin’s equivalent resistance) i.e.

at the condition of maximum power transfer, half percentage

64
 of generated power is delivered (or dissipated) to the load then

the efficiency is 50%.

 when the load resistance is much larger value than internal

source resistance, the power delivered will be less though the

efficiency is high.

Applications of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

1. Practical applications of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

include an audio system i.e., an audio amplifier with audio

speaker arrangement in public addressing systems. Here in

these systems the resistance of the speaker is the load. The

circuit that drives the speaker is audio amplifier. The speaker

resistance must be equal to the amplifier resistance in order to

transfer maximum power from amplifier to the speaker.

65
2. In case of a car engine starting system, starter motor resistance

must be matched with internal resistance of the battery. If the

battery is full and these resistances are matched, maximum

power will be transferred to the motor to turn ON the engine.

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Summary of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

 Maximum power transfer theorem can be applied to both DC

and AC circuits, but the only difference is that the resistance

is replaced with impedance in AC circuit.

 In an AC electrical network, the maximum power will be

transferred from source section to the load section when the

impedance of the load is complex conjugate of the source

impedance.

 It is important to note that in AC circuit, source also

possesses an internal reactance. Therefore, in order to have

maximum power transfer the load must possess same value

of reactance but it should be of opposite type. This means

that the load must have an equivalent capacitive reactance, if

source has inductive reactance, and vice versa.

 The efficiency is 50 percent only at maximum power transfer

condition. In power system network, our goal is to increase

67
 the efficiency rather than maximum power. Therefore,

power system never operated under maximum power

transfer.

Example 3
Find the load impedance in figure 1 for maximum power to the load.

Find the amount of maximum power.

Solution:
Remove the load impedance ZL first. Looking back into the network

through the open circuited load terminals,

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Also, Vo.c[Thevenin’s voltage] = I (j8)V [Refer to figure 2]

As per maximum power transfer theorem, the load impedance (ZL)

must be complex conjugate of the source impedance (i.e, internal

impedance Zint).

i.e.,

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Maximum power is given by

[RL being the resistive part of ZL]

Star Delta Transformation

There are certain circuit configurations that cannot be simplified by

series-parallel combination alone. A simple transformation based on

mathematical technique is readily simplifies the electrical circuit

configuration.

T-connected and Equivalent Star Network

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Pi-connected and Equivalent Delta Network

Delta – Wye conversion (Δ) - (Y)

Let us consider the network shown in fig.1(e) and assumed the

resistances (RAB, RBC, RCA) in 1(c)→ network is known. Our

problem is to find the values of RA, RB, RC in Wye (Y) network (see

fig.1(e)) that will produce the same resistance when measured

between similar pairs of terminals. We can write the equivalence

resistance between any two terminals in the following form.

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72
73
Subtracting equations (2), (1), and (3) from (4) equations, we can

write the express for unknown resistances of Wye (Y) network

These relationships may be expressed thus: the equivalent star

resistance connected to a given terminal is equal to the product of the

two delta resistances connected to the same terminal divided by the

sum of the delta resistances.

Conversion from Star or Wye to Delta

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To convert a Wye (Y) to a Delta (Δ), the relationships RAB, RBC and

RCA must be obtained in terms of the Wye (RA, RB, RC) resistances

(referring to fig.6.1 (f)).

Let us next consider how to replace the star-connected network of

Fig. 6.1(f) by the equivalent delta-connected network.

Dividing equation [5] by equation [6], we have

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Similarly, dividing equation [5] by equation [7], we have

Substituting for RAB and RCA in equation [5], we have

Similarly, we get

76
These relationships may be expressed thus: the equivalent delta

resistance between two terminals is the sum of the two-star connected

resistances to those terminals plus the product of the same two star

resistances divided by the third star resistance.

Star-Delta transformation of impedances

It is a simple matter to change the application to a.c. networks; this

is affected by using impedances instead of resistances, thus: the

equivalent delta impedance between two terminals is the sum of the

two star impedances connected to those terminals plus the product

77
of the same two star impedances divided by the third star

impedance.

78
The equivalent star impedance connected to a given terminal is

equal to the product of the two delta impedances connected to the

same terminal divided by the sum of the delta impedances.

79
Observations

In order to note the symmetry of the transformation equations, the

Wye (Y) and Delta (Δ) networks have been superimposed on each

other as shown in fig.

80
The equivalent star resistance connected to a given terminal is equal

to the product of the two Delta (Δ) resistances connected to the same

terminal divided by the sum of the Delta (Δ) resistances (see fig.).

The equivalent Delta (Δ) resistance between two-terminals is the

sum of the two-star (Wye) resistances connected to those terminals

plus the product of the same two-star (Wye) resistances divided by

the third star (Wye (Y)) resistance (see fig.).

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  One final point about converting a star resistive network to an

equivalent delta network. If all the resistors in the star network

are all equal in value then the resultant resistors in the

equivalent delta network will be three times the value of the

star resistors and equal, giving: RDELTA = 3RSTAR.

 If the three resistors in the delta network are all equal in value

then the resultant resistors in the equivalent star network will

be equal to one third the value of the delta resistors, giving

each branch in the star network as: RSTAR = (1/3) RDELTA

Example: 1

Find the value of the voltage source (Vs) that delivers 2 Amps

current through the circuit as shown in Fig.

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Solution:

83
84
The source Vs that delivers 2A current through the circuit can be

obtained as, Vs = 2x3.1 = 6.2V.

Example: 2.

Determine the equivalent resistance between the terminals A and B

of network shown in Figure below.

85
86
Problem 1

Find Rin

Problem 2

Find the equivalent resistance Req of the network at the terminals ‘a’

& ‘b’ using star-delta transformations.

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Nodal Analysis

In electric circuit analysis, nodal analysis, node-voltage analysis is a

method of determining the voltage (potential difference) between

“nodes” (connection of two or more branches) in an electric circuit

in terms of the branch currents.

KCL is used to develop the method referred to as nodal analysis.

Steps to determine node voltage and node currents

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 1. Convert all voltage sources (if any) to current sources through

source transformation.

2. Select a node or junction as reference node and indicate it by

‘0’ (preferably a common point or ground connection is chosen

as reference). Number the remaining (n-1) nodes in sequence

from 1 to (n-1).

3. Assign remaining (n-1) nodes with their phasor or branch

voltages (w.r.t. reference node) for an “n” node network.

4. Assign phasor branch currents to each branch.

5. Write current equation at each of (n-1) nodes (except reference

node) using KCL. The sign of current is taken as positive if it is

flowing towards the node.

6. Solve the simultaneous equations for the unknown phasor node

voltages.

Example

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According to KCL

∑ I = 0 at a node.

At node 1

I1 –I3-I5-I4 = 0

Or

I1 –V1Y1 – V1Y3 – (V1-V2) Y2 = 0

Or

(Y1 + Y2 + Y3)V1 + (-Y2)V2 +(0)V3 = I1 ………………..(1)

At node 2

I 2 + I4 – I 6 – I 7 = 0
90
Or

I2 + (V1 – V2)Y2 – (V2-V3)Y4 – (V2-V3)Y6 = 0

Or

(-Y2)V1 + (Y2+Y4+Y6)V2 + (-Y4-Y6)V3 = I2 …………………(2)

At node 3

-I2 +I6 +I7 –I8 = 0

Or

-I2 + (V2-V3)Y4 + (V2-V3)Y6 –V3Y5 = 0

Or

(0)V1 + (-Y4-Y6)V2 + (Y4+Y5+Y6)V3 = -I2 ………………..(3)

From relations (1), (2) and (3)

Or

[Y][V] = [I]

91
where [Y] is a square matrix, the admittance matrix.

Alternatively, [V] = [Y]-1[I]

By using Cramer’s rule,

V1 = D1 / D, V2 = D2 / D and V3 = D3 / D

Where

92
The generalized representation with (n+1) nodes

[Y][V] = [I]

Where the square matrix Y is called the admittance matrix, having

yij as elements i= 1,2,…..m and j=1,2,……m, and I is the column

matrix of the input currents sources I = 1,2,…..m. The elements yij

of the impedance matrix Y are

(i) Yii, the self-admittance of the ith node

(ii) Yij, the mutual admittance between the ith and jth nodes.

93
V is the node voltage vector of order (mx1).

For networks having only passive elements and without any

dependent source, the admittance matrix becomes symmetric, i.e. yij

= yji.

Example
Determine the node voltages and currents in each branch using

nodal analysis method in the given circuit.

Label the nodes present in the given circuit. By choosing the bottom

node as reference node, there are two other nodes in the given

94
circuit. So, these nodes are labeled as V1 and V2 as shown in below

figure. And also, current directions in each branch are represented.

By applying KCL at node 1, we get

5 = I3 + I10

5 = (V1 – V2)/3 +(V1/10)

13V1 – 10V2 = 150 ………(1)

By applying KCL at node 2, we get

I3 = I5 + I 1

(V1 – V2) /3 = (V2/5) + (V2 – 10)/1

5V1 – 23V2 = -150 ……..(2)

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By solving above two equations, we get

V1 = 19.85 Volts and V2 = 10.9 Volts

The currents in each branch are given as

I10 = V1/10 = 19.85/10 = 1.985A

I3 = V1 – V2/3 = 19.85 – 10.9/3 = 2.98 A

I5 = V2/5= 10.9/5 = 2.18 A

I1 = V2 – 10 = 10.9 – 10 = 0.9 A

Concept of Super node

Sometimes it becomes difficult to apply nodal analysis when any

voltage source is present in between two branches in a circuit. One

way to overcome this problem is by applying a super node

technique. In super node technique, voltage source is connected

between two adjacent nodes is shorted to reduce the two nodes to

form a single super node.

96
In the above example a voltage source is connected between the 2

and 3 nodes. The calculations become more difficult if we analyze

the circuit with voltage source. The analysis of this circuit becomes

easier if we create a super node by shorting 2 and 3 nodes.

By applying Kirchhoff’s current law at the node 1 we get,

I = (V1/R1) + ((V1-V2)/R2) …… (1)

The super node technique can be applied to the given circuit by

shorting the 2 and 3 nodes and by applying KCL we get

((V2-V1)/R2) + (V2/R3) + ((V3-Vy)/R4) + (V3/R5) = 0 ………(2)

And also, voltage in the voltage source is given as

97
 Vx = V2 – V3……..(3)

From the above three equations, it can easily find out the three

unknown voltages in the circuit.

Example of Super node

Consider the circuit below and find the three unknown node

voltages V1, V2 and V3 by using super node technique.

At node 1, source is connected to the reference node and hence V1

becomes 5v

V1 = 5 V

98
A super node is formed by enclosing the nodes 2 and 3. By applying

KCL at this super node we get

I1 = I2 + I 3

(V1 – V2)/5 = (V2 / 10) + (V3/20) …………….. (1)

And also, KVL at super node gives,

V2 – V3 = 10…………… (2)

By solving above equations, we get V2 = 4.29V and V3 = -5.71 V

KVL and KCL Analysis

Kirchhoff’s current law:

99
It states that at any junction (node) in an electric circuit the total

current flowing towards that junction (or node) is equal to the total

current flowing away from the junction (or node). i.e.

A terminal of any branch of a network common to two or more

branches is known as node.

This idea by Kirchhoff is commonly known as the Conservation of

Charge.

Kirchhoff’s voltage law:

100
It states that the algebraic sum of voltage (or, voltage drops) in any

closed path of network taken in a single direction is zero. i.e

ΣV=0
OR,

In any closed loop in a network, the algebraic sum of the voltage

drop taken around the loop is equal to the resultant voltage acting in

the loop. i.e

This idea by Kirchhoff is known as the Conservation of Energy.

101
The above electric circuit consisting of six nodes A, B, C, D, E and F

as shown in the Figure above. A unit positive charge flowing from

point A to B (-ve to +ve terminal) is equivalent to a voltage rise, i.e.

gain of energy. Thus unit +ve charge flows from point A to B, C, D,

E, F and back to A. The current is charge per unit time. Then, the

movement of current, i.e. charge from B to C, C to D, D to E, E to F

causes a voltage drop equivalent to losing of energy.

Therefore, around a closed loop, the sum of the voltage drops must

be equal to the sum of voltage rises.

VBA = VS

Hence KVL is

VS – V1-V2-V3-V4- V5= 0 or VS = V1 +V2 +V3 +V4 +V5

Where V1, V2, V3, V4, V5 are the potentials of nodes B, C, D, E and

F respectively. Mathematically KVL can be written as ΣV=0.

102