DC Circuits

Prepared by,
B. Pandyselvi
 DC Circuits

INTRODUCTION:
An Electric circuit is an interconnection of various elements in which there is at least one closed
path in which current can flow. An Electric circuit is used as a component for any engineering system.

Elements of an Electric circuit:

An Electric circuit consists of following types of elements.

Active elements:

Active elements are the elements of a circuit which possess energy of their own and can impart it to
other element of the circuit.

Active elements are of two types

a) Voltage source b) Current source

A Voltage source has a specified voltage across its terminals, independent of current flowing through
it.
A current source has a specified current through it independent of the voltage appearing across it.

Passive Elements:

The passive elements of an electric circuit do not possess energy of their own. They receive
energy from the sources. The passive elements are the resistance, the inductance and the capacitance.
When electrical energy is supplied to a circuit element, it will respond in one and more of the following
ways.

If the energy is consumed, then the circuit element is a pure resistor.

If the energy is stored in a magnetic field, the element is a pure inductor.

And if the energy is stored in an electric field, the element is a pure capacitor.
Linear and Non-Linear Elements.

Linear elements show the linear characteristics of voltage & current. That is its voltage-current
characteristics are at all-times a straight-line through the origin.
For example, the current passing through a resistor is proportional to the voltage applied
through its and the relation is expressed as V=IR. A linear element or network is one which satisfies the
principle of superposition i.e., the principle of homogeneity and additivity.

Resistors, inductors and capacitors are the examples of the linear elements and their
properties do not change with a change in the applied voltage and the circuit current.

Nonlinear element’s V-I characteristics do not follow the linear pattern i.e. the current passing
through it does not change linearly with the linear change in the voltage across it. Examples are the
semiconductor devices such as diode, transistor.

Bilateral and Unilateral Elements:

An element is said to be bilateral, when the same relation exists between voltage and current
for the current flowing in both directions.

Ex: Voltage source, Current source, resistance, inductance & capacitance.

The circuits containing them are called bilateral circuits.

An element is said to be unilateral, when the same relation does not exist between voltage
and current when current flowing in both directions. The circuits containing them are called unilateral
circuits.
Ex: Vacuum diodes, Silicon Diodes, Selenium Rectifiers etc.

The circuits containing them are called unilateral circuits.

Lumped and Distributed Elements

Lumped elements are those elements which are very small in size & in which simultaneous
actions takes place. Typical lumped elements are capacitors, resistors, inductors.

Distributed elements are those which are not electrically separable for analytical purposes.

For example a transmission line has distributed parameters along its length and may extend for
hundreds of miles.
Types of Sources:
Independent & Dependent sources:

If the voltage of the voltage source is completely independent source of current and the current
of the current source is completely independent of the voltage, then the sources are called as
independent sources.

The special kind of sources in which the source voltage or current depends on some other
quantity in the circuit which may be either a voltage or a current anywhere in the circuit are called
Dependent sources or Controlled sources.

There are four possible dependent sources:

a. Voltage dependent Voltage source

b. Current dependent Current source
c. Voltage dependent Current source
d. Current dependent Current source
 The constants of proportionalities are written as B, g, a, r in which B & a has no units, r has units
of ohm & g units of mhos.

Independent sources actually exist as physical entities such as battery, a dc generator & an
alternator. But dependent sources are used to represent electrical properties of electronic devices
such as OPAMPS & Transistors.

Ideal & Practical sources:

1. An ideal voltage source is one which delivers energy to the load at a constant terminal
voltage, irrespective of the current drawn by the load.

2. An ideal current source is one, which delivers energy with a constant current to the load,
irrespective of the terminal voltage across the load.

3. A Practical voltage source always possesses a very small value of internal resistance r. The
internal resistance of a voltage source is always connected in series with it & for a current
source; it is always connected in parallel with it. As the value of the internal resistance of a
practical voltage source is very small, its terminal voltage is assumed to be almost constant
within a certain limit of current flowing through the load.

4. A practical current source is also assumed to deliver a constant current, irrespective of the
terminal voltage across the load connected to it.
The equivalent single ideal voltage some is given by V= V1 + V2

Any number of ideal voltage sources connected in series can be represented by a single ideal
voltage some taking in to account the polarities connected together in to consideration.

Practical voltage source connected in series:

Ideal voltage source connected in parallel:

4
 When two ideal voltage sources of emf’s V1 & V2 are connected in parallel, what voltage appears
across its terminals is ambiguous.

Hence such connections should not be made.

However if V1 = V2= V, then the equivalent voltage some is represented by V.

In that case also, such a connection is unnecessary as only one voltage source serves the purpose.

Practical voltage sources connected in parallel:

Equivalent Circuit Single Equivalent

Voltage Source

Ideal current sources connected in series:

When ideal current sources are connected in series, what current flows through the line is
ambiguous. Hence such a connection is not permissible.

However, it I1 = I2 = I, then the current in the line is I.

But, such a connection is not necessary as only one current source serves the purpose.
Ideal current sources connected in parallel

Two ideal current sources in parallel can be replaced by a single equivalent ideal current source.

Practical current sources connected in parallel

Source transformation:

A current source or a voltage source drives current through its load resistance and the
magnitude of the current depends on the value of the load resistance.

Consider a practical voltage source and a practical current source connected to the same load
resistance RL as shown in the figure

Ri in figure represents the internal resistance of the voltage source VS and current source IS.

Two sources are said to be identical, when they produce identical terminal voltage VL and load currentIL.

The circuit in figure represents a practical voltage source & a practical current source respectively, with
load connected to both the sources.

The terminal voltage VL and load current IL across their terminals is same.

Hence the practical voltage source & practical current source shown in the dotted box of figure are
equal.

The two equivalent sources should also provide the same open circuit voltage & short circuit current.

From fig (a) IL = Vs / Ri and from fig (b) IL = IS (Ri) / Ri + RL.

Hence a voltage source Vs in series with its internal resistance R can be converted into a current
source (Is) with its internal resistance Ri connected in parallel with it. Similarly a current source IS
in parallel with its internal resistance RI can be converted into a voltage source VS = I S RI in series with
itsinternal resistance RI.

R-L-C Parameters:

1. Resistance:

Resistance is that property of a circuit element which opposes the flow of electric current and in
doing so converts electrical energy into heat energy.

It is the proportionality factor in ohm’s law relating voltage and current.

 Ohm’s law states that the voltage drop across a conductor of given length and area of cross section is
directly proportional to the current flowing through it.

Rαi

V=Ri

2. Inductance

Inductance is the property of a material by virtue of which it opposes any change of

magnitude and direction of electric current passing through conductor. A wire of certain length, when
twisted into a coil becomes a basic conductor. A change in the magnitude of the current changes the
electromagneticfield.

Increase in current expands the field & decrease in current reduces it. A change in current produces
change in the electromagnetic field. This induces a voltage across the coil according to Faradays laws of
Electromagnetic Induction.

Induced Voltage V = L di/dt

3. Capacitance:

1) A capacitor consists of two metallic surfaces or conducting surfaces separated by a

dielectric medium.
2) It is a circuit element which is capable of storing electrical energy in its electric field.
3) Capacitance is its capacity to store electrical energy.
4) Capacitance is the proportionality constant relating the charge on the conducting plates
to the potential.

Charge on the capacitor q α V

q = CV

Where `C` is the capacitance in farads, if q is charge in coulombs and V is the potential
difference across the capacitor in volts.
The current flowing in the circuit is rate of flow of charge I is equal to dq/dt.

1
𝑉= ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝐶
Kirchhoff`s Laws:

Kirchhoff’s laws are more comprehensive than Ohm's law and are used for solving electrical
networks which may not be readily solved by the latter.

Kirchhoff`s laws, two in number, are particularly useful in determining the equivalent resistance
of a complicated network of conductors and for calculating the currents flowing in the various
conductors.

1. Kirchhoff`s Current Law (KCL)

In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point (or junction) is
Zero.

That is the total current entering a junction is equal to the total current leaving that junction.

Consider the case of a network shown in Fig (a).

I1+(-I2)+(I3)+(+I4)+(-I5) = 0
I1+I4-I2-I3-I5 = 0
Or
I1+I4 = I2+I3+I5
Or
Incoming currents =Outgoing currents

2. Kirchhoff's Mesh Law or Voltage Law (KVL)

In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in each
of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the algebraic sum of the
e.m.f.’s. in that path is zero.

That is, ∑IR + ∑e.m.f = 0 round a mesh

It should be noted that algebraic sum is the sum which takes into account the polarities of the
voltage drops.
That is, if we start from a particular junction and go round the mesh till we come back to the
starting point, then we must be at the same potential with which we started.

Hence, it means that all the sources of emf met on the way must necessarily be equal to the
voltage drops in the resistances, every voltage being given its proper sign, plus or minus.

Determination of Voltage Sign

In applying Kirchhoff's laws to specific problems, particular attention should be paid to the
algebraic signs of voltage drops and e.m.fs.

(a) Sign of Battery E.M.F.

A rise in voltage should be given a + ve sign and a fall in voltage a -ve sign. That is, if we go from
the -ve terminal of a battery to its +ve terminal there is a rise in potential, hence this voltage
should be given a + ve sign.

And on the other hand, we go from +ve terminal to -ve terminal, then there is a fall in potential,
hence this voltage should be preceded by a -ve sign.

The sign of the battery e.m.f is independent of the direction of the current through that branch.

(b) Sign of IR Drop

Now, take the case of a resistor (Fig. 2.4). If we go through a resistor in the same direction as
the
current, then there is a fall in potential because current flows from a higher to a lower
potential..
Hence, this voltage fall should be taken -ve. However, if we go in a direction opposite to that of
the
current, then there is a rise in voltage. Hence, this voltage rise should be given a positive sign.

Consider the closed path ABCDA in Fig .

 As we travel around the mesh in the clockwise direction, different voltage drops will have the
following signs :

I1R1 is - ve (fall in potential)

I2R2 is - ve (fall in potential)
I3R3 is + ve (rise in potential)
I4R4 is - ve (fall in potential)
E2 is - ve (fall in potential)
E1 is + ve (rise in potential)

Using Kirchhoff's voltage law, we get

-I1R1 – I2R2 – I3R3 – I4 R4 – E2 + E1 = 0

Or
I1R1 + I2R2 – I3R3 + I4R4 = E1 –E2

Assumed Direction of Current:

In applying Kirchhoff's laws to electrical networks, the direction of current flow may be
assumed either clockwise or anticlockwise. If the assumed direction of current is not the actual
direction, then on solving the question, the current will be found to have a minus sign.
If the answer is positive, then assumed direction is the same as actual direction.
However, the important point is that once a particular direction has been assumed, the same
should be used throughout the solution of the question.

Kirchhoff's laws are applicable both to d.c. and a.c. voltages and currents. However, in the case
of alternating currents and voltages, any e.m.f. of self-inductance or that existing across a
capacitor should be also taken into account.

Network Reduction Techniques:

Series Connection of Resistors:
Two or more resistors in a circuit are said to be in series when the current flowing through
all the resistors is the same.

Consider the circuit in fig(a) ,where two resistors R1 and R2 are in series, since the same
current i flows in both of them. Applying Ohm’s law to each of the resistors, we obtain
v1 = iR1,.......(1) v2= iR2............ (2)
If we apply KVL to the loop fig(b) , we have
-v + v1 +v2 = 0......................... (3)
v =v1 +v2= i(R1 + R2)
i = v/ (R1 +R2) ............................. (4)
v =i Req .............. (5)
Implying that the two resistors can be replaced by an equivalent resistor; that is,
Req =R1 + R2
Note: The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series is the sum of
the individual resistances.
If "n"resistors are in series, Req=R1+R2+ ..... Rn

If "n"resistors of same value are in series, Req=nR

Parallel Connection of Resistors:

Two or more resistors in a circuit are said to be in Parallel when all the resistors are
connected to the same nodes and the same voltage is appearing across all these elements.
 Consider the circuit in fig(a), where two resistors are connected in parallel and therefore have
the same voltage across them. From Ohm’s law,
v = i1R1 = i2R2 ........................... (1)
i1 =v/R1, i2 =v/R2................. (2)
Applying KCL at node a gives the total current i as
i = i1 +i2............... (3)
Substituting Eq. (2) into Eq. (3), we get
i =v/R1+v/R2=v(1/R1+1/R2)=v/Req
1/Req=1/R1+1/R2

Note: The equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the product of their
resistances divided by their sum.
If "n"resistors are in parallel, 1/ Req=1/R1+1/R2+ ..... 1/Rn
If "n"resistors of same value are in parallel, Req=R/n
It is often more convenient to use conductance rather than resistance when dealing with
resistors in parallel. The equivalent conductance for N resistors in parallel is

Note: The equivalent conductance of resistors connected in parallel is the sum of their individual
conductances.
 Example Problems:
1) Find the Req for the circuit shown in below figure.

fig(a)
Solution:

To get Req we combine resistors in series and in parallel. The 6 ohms and 3 ohms resistors are in
parallel, so their equivalent resistance is

Also, the 1 ohm and 5ohms resistors are in series; hence their equivalent resistance is

Thus the circuit in Fig.(b) is reduced to that in Fig. (c). In Fig. (b), we notice that the two 2 ohms
resistors are in series, so the equivalent resistance is

This 4 ohms resistor is now in parallel with the 6 ohms resistor in Fig.(b); their equivalent
resistance is

The circuit in Fig.(b) is now replaced with that in Fig.(c). In Fig.(c), the three resistors are in
series. Hence, the equivalent resistance for the circuit is
2) Find the Req for the circuit shown in below figure.

Solution:
In the given network 4 ohms, 5 ohms and 3 ohms comes in series then equivalent resistance is
4+5 + 3 = 12 ohms

From fig(b), 4 ohms and 12 ohms are in parallel, equivalent is 3 ohms

From fig(c), 3 ohms and 3 ohms are in series, equivalent resistance is 6 ohms

From fig(d), 6 ohms and 6 ohms are in parallel, equivalent resistance is 3 ohms

From fig(e), 4 ohms, 3 ohms and 3 ohms are in series .Hence Req = 4+ 3+ 3 =10 ohms
 Introduction to Mesh Analysis and Nodal Analysis:
Mesh Analysis and Nodal Analysis are two important techniques used in
network analysis to find out different branch currents and Node voltages.
The suitability of each analysis depends mainly on the number of
voltage/current sources in the given network. If the voltage sources are more
Mesh analysis is suitable and if current sources are more Nodal analysis is
more suitable.

Mesh Analysis:
Mesh analysis provides general procedure for analyzing circuits using mesh
currents as the circuit variables. Mesh Analysis is applicable only for planar
networks. It is preferably useful for the circuits that have many loops .This
analysis is done by using KVL and Ohm's law.

Loop: It is a closed path along the circuit elements.

Mesh: Mesh is a loop which does not contain any loop within it.

Mesh analysis with example:

Determination of mesh currents:

Solution:

Step (1): Identify the no. of

meshes in the given circuit. There

are two meshes..Mesh (1) ............... abef and

Mesh (2) .... bcde

Step (2): Apply the KVL to the all meshes.

For mesh (1) by applying KVL… Vs -I1 .R1 + ( I1- I2). R2 =0. ............. (1)

For mesh (2) by applying KVL.... I2 .(R3 )+ I2 (R4)+ ( I2- I1). R2=0. ......... (2)

Step (3): solve the above equations for mesh currents.

Problem:
Write down the mesh current equations for the circuit shown in the figure
below anddetermine the currents I1 and I2.

Solution:

By applying KVL to

the two meshes, we get

5 I1 + 2(I1- I2) = 10

10 I2 + 2( I2- I1) = -50.

Solving the above equations gives .... I1 = 0.25 A and I2 = -4.25 A. The negative sign
for the
current I2 indicates that it flows in the opposite direction to that assumed in the loop
two.

Super Mesh Analysis: If there is only current source between two meshes
in the given network then it is difficult to apply the mesh analysis. Because
the current source has to be converted into a voltage source in terms of the
current source, write down the mesh equations and relate the mesh currents
to the current source. But this is a difficult approach .This difficulty can be
avoided by creating super mesh which encloses the two meshes that have
common current source

Super Mesh: A super mesh is constituted by two adjacent meshes that have
a common current source.

Let us illustrate this method with the following simple generalized circuit.
Solution:

Step (1): Identify the position of current source.

Here the current source is common to the two meshes 1 and 2.

so, super mesh is nothing but the combination of meshes 1 and
2.
Step (2): Apply KVL to super mesh and to other meshes
Applying KVL to this super mesh (combination of

meshes 1 and 2 ) we get R1.I1 + R3 ( I2 – I3) = V (1)

Applying

KVL to mesh

3, we get R3 (

I3 – I2) + R4.I3

= 0 ........................................... (2)

Step (3): Make the relation between mesh currents with current source

to get third equation. Third equation is nothing but he relation between I

, I1 and I2 which is

I1 - I2 = I ............ (3)

Step(4): Solve the above equations to get the mesh currents.

Example(1): Determine the current in the 5 Ω resistor shown in the figure below.

Solution:

Step(1): Here the current source exists between mesh(2) and

mesh(3).Hence, super mesh is the combination of mesh(2) and mesh(3)
.Applying KVL to the super mesh ( combination of mesh 2and mesh 3 after
removing the branch with the current source of 2 A and resistance of 3 Ω )
we get :
10( I2– I1) + 2.I2 + I3 + 5( I3 – I1) = 0
-15.I1 +12 I2 + 6.I3 = 0.................... (1)
Step (2): Applying KVL first to the normal mesh 1 we get :

10( I1 – I2) + 5( I1 – I3) = 50

15.I1 –10. I2 – 5.I3 = 50 .................... (2)

Step (3): We can get the third equation from the relation between the current
source of 2 A , andcurrents I2 & I3 as :

I2 - I3 = 2 A .................. (3)

Step (4): Solving the above three equations for I1, I2 and I3 we get I1 =
19.99 A I2 = 17.33 Aand I3 = 15.33 A

The current in the 5 Ω resistance = I1 - I3 = 19.99 - 15.33 = 4.66 A

Example(2): Write down the mesh equations for the circuit shown in the
figure below and findout the values of the currents I1, I2 and I3

Solution: In this circuit the current source is in the perimeter of the circuit and hence
the firstmesh is ignored. So, here no need to create the super mesh.

Applying KVL to mesh 1 we get :

3( I2 – I1) + 2( I2 – I3) = -10

-3.I1 +5.I2 – 2.I3 = -10 ............... (1)

Next applying KVL to mesh 2 we get :

I3 + 2( I3– I2) = 10

-2.I2 +3.I3 = -10 ............... (2)

And from the first mesh we observe that....... I1 = 10 A.............. (3)

And solving these three equations we get : I1 = 10 A, I2 = 7.27 A, I3 = 8.18 A

Nodal analysis:

Nodal analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing circuits

nodal voltages as the circuit variables. It is preferably useful for the circuits
that have many no. of nodes. It is applicable for the both planar and non
planar circuits. This analysis is done by using KCL and Ohm's law.

Node: It is a junction at which two or more branches are interconnected.

Simple Node: Node at which only two branches are

interconnected. Principal Node: Node at which more

than two branches are interconnected. Nodal analysis

with example:

Determination of node voltages:

Procedure:

Step (1): Identify the no. nodes, simple nodes and principal nodes in the
given circuit. Among allthe nodes one node is taken as reference node.
Generally bottom is taken as reference node. The potential at the reference
node is 0v.

In the given circuit there are 3 principal nodes in which node (3) is the reference
node.

Step (2): Assign node voltages to the all the principal nodes except reference
node and assignbranch currents to all branches.

Step (3): Apply KCL to those principal nodes for nodal equations and
by using ohm's lawexpress the node voltages in terms of branch current.

Applying KCL to node (1) ---- 1=I2+I3

Using ohm's law, we get (V-V1)/R1 = (V2-0)/R2 +(V1-V2)/R3. .......... (1)

Applying KCL to node (2) ---- I3=I4 +I5

Using ohm's law, we get (V1-V2)/R3 =(V4-0)/R4 +(V5-0)/R5 ................(2)

Step(4): Solve the above nodal equations to get the node voltages.

Example: Write the node voltage equations and find out the currents in
each branch of thecircuit shown in the figure below.

Solution:

The node voltages and the directions of the branch currents are assigned as
shown in given figure. Applying KCL to node 1, we get: 5 = I10+ I3
5= (V1-0)/10 +(V1-V2)/3

V1(1/30) -V2(1/3) = 5 ............. (1)

Applying KCL to node 2, we get: I3= I5 + I1

(V1-V2)/3 = (V2 -0)/5 + (V2-10) /1

V1(1/3)-V2(23/15) = -10 ............... (2)

Solving the these two equations for V1 and V2 we get :

V1 = 19.85 V and V2 = 10.9 V and the currents are :

I10= V1/10 = 1.985A
I3 = (V1-V2)/3 =
(19.85-10.9)/3 =
2.98AI5 = V2/5 =
10.9/5 =2.18A
I1 = (V2-10) = (10.9-10)/1 = 0.9A

Super Node Analysis: If there is only voltage source between two nodes in
the given network then it is difficult to apply the nodal analysis. Because the
voltage source has to be converted into a current source in terms of the
voltage source, write down the nodal equations and relate the node voltages
to the voltage source. But this is a difficult approach .This difficulty can be
avoided by creating super node which encloses the two nodes that have
common voltage source.
Super Node: A super node is constituted by two adjacent nodes that
have a common voltagesource.

Example: Write the nodal equations by using super node analysis.

Procedure:

Step(1):Identify the position of voltage source.Here the voltage source

is common to the two nodes 2 and 3.so, super node is nothing but the
combination of nodes 2 and 3 .

Step (2):Apply KCL to super node and to other nodes.

Applying KCL to this super node (combination of

meshes 2 and 3 ), we get (V2-V1)/R2 + V2/R3 + (V3-

Vy)/R4 + V3/R5 = 0 ............................................................ (1)

Applying KVL to node 1 ,we get

I = V1/R1 + (V1-V2)/R2 ................... (2)

Step (3): Make the relation between node voltages with voltage source

to get third equation. Third equation is nothing but the relation between

VX , V2 and V3 which is
V2 - V3 = Vx .............. (3)
Step (4): Solve the above nodal equations to get the node voltages.

Example: Determine the current in the 5 Ω resistor shown in the circuit below
Solution:

Applying KCL to node 1: 10 = V1/3 + (V1-V2)/2

V1 [ 1/3 + 1/2 ] - V2 /2 = 10

0.83 V1 - 0.5 V2 = 10 ............... (1)

Next applying KCL to

the super node2&3 :
(V2-V1)/2 + V2/1 +
(V3-10)/5 + V3/2 = 0
-V1/2 + V2(1/2 + 1) V3(1/5 + 1/2) = 2
0.5 V1 + 1.5V2 + 0.7 V3 = 2 ...................... (2)
and the third and final equation is
V2 - V3 = 20 ................... (3)

Solving the above three equations we get V3 = -8.42 V

The current through the 5 Ω resistor I5 = [-8.42 – 10] / 5 = - 3.68 A. (-ve) sign
indicates that the current flows towards the node 3