CHAPTER 6 Bandwidth Utilization:
Multiplexing and Spectrum Spreading
MULTIPLEXING :
● Multiplexing is a technique that allows multiple signals (or data streams) to be sent
at the same time over a single physical communication link.
Basic Setup of a Multiplexed System
1. Multiple input lines (from different devices or users) feed their data into a
multiplexer (MUX).
2. The multiplexer combines all these signals into one single stream.
3. This combined stream travels over one physical link (like one fiber optic cable).
4. At the receiving end, a demultiplexer (DEMUX) separates this combined stream
back into the original separate signals.
5. The separated signals are sent to their respective output lines (devices/users).
● Link: The physical medium carrying the data (cable, fiber, wireless, etc.).
● Channel: A part of the link’s bandwidth dedicated to one signal or data stream.
One link can have many channels, each carrying different data streams.
●
Frequency-Division Multiplexing:
● FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines analog signals.
● FDM is a way to send multiple signals at the same time over a single
communication link by giving each signal a different frequency band(channels).
● FDM is an analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of a link (in
hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted.
● FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines analog signals.
Signal Modulation Process
● Point: Each sending device modulates different carrier frequencies
● Example: Device A uses carrier frequency f1, Device B uses f2, Device C uses f3 -
each creates a modulated signal on its unique frequency
3. Signal Combination
● Point: Modulated signals are combined into a single composite signal for
transmission
● Example: The three separate modulated signals (from devices A, B, C) merge into
one composite signal that travels over the single link
4. Channel Separation
● Point: Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate
modulated signals
● Example: As shown in Figure 6.3, the transmission path is divided into three distinct
parts/channels, each carrying one transmission
5. Guard Bands
● Point: Channels are separated by unused bandwidth strips called guard bands
● Example: If Channel 1 uses 100-200 Hz and Channel 2 uses 300-400 Hz, the
200-300 Hz range serves as a guard band to prevent signal overlap
6. Frequency Interference Prevention
● Point: Carrier frequencies must not interfere with original data frequencies
● Example: The original data frequencies must remain distinct from the carrier
frequencies used for modulation
7. Digital Signal Compatibility
● Point: FDM can combine digital sources by converting them to analog first
● Example: Digital signals can be converted to analog using techniques from Chapter
5, then multiplexed using FDM
8. Classification
● Point: FDM is considered an analog multiplexing technique that combines analog
signals
● Example: Even when digital sources are involved, they're converted to analog form
before FDM processing
Multiplexing Process
1. Source Signal Generation
● Point: Each source generates a signal of similar frequency range
● Example: Three different data sources (Source 1, Source 2, Source 3) each produce
signals in comparable frequency ranges before processing
2. Carrier Frequency Modulation
● Point: Inside the multiplexer, similar signals modulate different carrier frequencies
● Example: Signal from Source 1 modulates carrier frequency f1, Source 2 modulates
f2, and Source 3 modulates f3
3. Signal Combination
● Point: Modulated signals are combined into a single composite signal
● Example: The three separately modulated signals (on f1, f2, f3) merge to form one
composite signal ready for transmission
4. Media Link Transmission
● Point: The composite signal is sent over a media link with sufficient bandwidth
● Example: The combined signal travels over a single communication link that has
enough bandwidth capacity to carry all multiplexed channels simultaneously
Demultiplexing Process
5. Filter-Based Decomposition
● Point: The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal
● Example: Different filters separate the composite signal back into its individual
component signals (separating f1, f2, and f3 components)
6. Demodulation Process
● Point: Individual signals are passed to a demodulator that separates them from their
carriers
● Example: The demodulator removes the carrier frequencies (f1, f2, f3) from each
separated signal, recovering the original data
7. Output Distribution
● Point: Demodulated signals are passed to output lines
● Example: The recovered original signals are sent to their respective output
destinations (Output 1, Output 2, Output 3)
8. Visual Reference
● Point: Figure 6.4 illustrates multiplexing, Figure 6.5 illustrates demultiplexing
● Example: These diagrams provide conceptual visualization of how signals flow
through the entire FDM process from input to output
SPREAD SPECTRUM :
● spread spectrum (SS), we also combine signals from different sources to fit into a
larger bandwidth,
● Spread spectrum is designed to be used in wireless applications (LANs and WANs).
Here are the key points about Spread Spectrum Techniques explained point-wise with
examples from the text:
Security Concerns in Wireless Applications
1. Shared Medium Challenge
● Point: In wireless applications, all stations use air (or a vacuum) as the medium for
communication
● Example: All wireless devices must communicate through the same shared airspace
2. Eavesdropping Prevention Requirement
● Point: Stations must be able to share the medium without interception by an
eavesdropper
● Example: Communications need protection from unauthorized listeners who might
intercept signals
3. Jamming Protection Requirement
● Point: Stations must operate without being subject to jamming from malicious
intruders
● Example: Military operations require protection from intentional signal interference by
hostile forces
Spread Spectrum Solution Approach
4. Redundancy Addition Strategy
● Point: To achieve security goals, spread spectrum techniques add redundancy
● Example: The technique intentionally adds extra data to protect the original message
5. Spectrum Expansion Process
● Point: Spread spectrum spreads the original spectrum needed for each station
● Example: The original bandwidth required by each station is deliberately expanded
for protection
6. Bandwidth Expansion Formula
● Point: If required bandwidth for each station is B, spread spectrum expands it to Bss
● Example: The relationship is Bss >> B, meaning spread spectrum bandwidth is
much greater than original bandwidth
7. Protective Envelope Concept
● Point: Expanded bandwidth allows the source to wrap its message in a protective
envelope
● Example: The additional bandwidth creates a secure transmission wrapper around
the original message
Analogy for Understanding
8. Gift Packaging Analogy
● Point: Spread spectrum is like sending a delicate, expensive gift with protection
● Example: We can insert the gift in a special box to prevent it from being damaged
during transportation
9. Superior Delivery Service Analogy
● Point: The protective measures ensure safe delivery like premium shipping services
● Example: We can use a superior delivery service to guarantee the safety of the
package
Trade-off Consideration
10. Bandwidth Efficiency vs. Security Priority
● Point: In these applications, security concerns outweigh bandwidth efficiency
● Example: The technique sacrifices efficient bandwidth usage in favor of secure,
protected communication
PRINCIPLES :
● The bandwidth allocated to each station needs to be, by far, larger than what is
needed. This allows redundancy.
● The expanding of the original bandwidth B to the bandwidth Bss must be done by a
process that is independent of the original signal. In other words, the spreading
process occurs after the signal is created by the source.
●
● After the signal is created by the source, the spreading process uses a spreading
code and spreads the bandwidth.
● The spreading code is a series of numbers that look random, but are actually a
pattern.
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum :
1. Multiple Carrier Frequency Usage
● Point: FHSS technique uses M different carrier frequencies that are modulated by
the source signal
● Example: At one moment, the signal modulates one carrier frequency; at the next
moment, the signal modulates another carrier frequency
2. Sequential Modulation Process
● Point: Although modulation is done using one carrier frequency at a time, M
frequencies are used in the long run
● Example: The system cycles through all available frequencies over time, using only
one at each moment
3. Bandwidth Expansion
● Point: The bandwidth occupied by a source after spreading is much larger than
original
● Example: BFHSS >> B, where BFHSS is the spread bandwidth and B is the original
bandwidth
FHSS System Components
4. Pseudorandom Code Generator
● Point: A pseudorandom noise (PN) generator creates k-bit patterns for every
hopping period
● Example: Creates specific bit patterns that determine which frequency to use during
each time period
5. Frequency Table Function
● Point: The frequency table uses the pattern to find the frequency for each hopping
period
● Example: Maps the k-bit patterns to specific carrier frequencies and passes selection
to frequency synthesizer
6. Frequency Synthesizer Role
● Point: The frequency synthesizer creates a carrier signal of the selected frequency
● Example: Generates the actual carrier wave that the source signal will modulate
Practical Example - 8 Frequency System
7. Example System Parameters
● Point: Example uses eight hopping frequencies with 3-bit patterns
● Example: M is 8 frequencies and k is 3 bits, creating eight different 3-bit patterns
8. Pattern-to-Frequency Mapping
● Point: Each 3-bit pattern maps to a specific frequency in the frequency table
● Example: The pseudorandom pattern sequence is 101, 111, 001, 000, 010, 011, 100
9. Frequency Selection Process
● Point: Each pattern selects a specific carrier frequency for that hopping period
● Example: Pattern 101 selects 700 kHz, pattern 111 selects 900 kHz, pattern 100
selects 600 kHz
10. Pattern Repetition Cycle
● Point: The pattern is pseudorandom and repeats after eight hoppings
● Example: After the eighth hopping, the pattern starts over from 101 again
11. Hopping Visualization
● Point: The signal hops around from carrier to carrier following the pattern
● Example: Figure 6.30 shows how signals jump between different frequencies,
assuming original signal bandwidth is 100 kHz
Security Benefits
12. Privacy Protection
● Point: Many k-bit patterns and short hopping periods provide privacy for sender and
receiver
● Example: If an intruder tries to intercept, she can only access small pieces of data
without knowing the spreading sequence
13. Interception Difficulty
● Point: Intruders cannot quickly adapt to frequency changes without the hopping
sequence
● Example: Unauthorized listeners cannot follow the rapid frequency changes to
capture complete messages
14. Anti-jamming Effect
● Point: The scheme provides protection against malicious signal jamming
● Example: A malicious sender may jam one frequency for one hopping period
randomly, but not for the whole transmission period
Bandwidth Sharing Capability
15. Channel Multiplexing
● Point: If there are M hopping frequencies, M channels can be multiplexed into one
using the same bandwidth
● Example: Multiple stations can share the same total bandwidth Bss by using different
frequencies at different times
16. Frequency Reuse Logic
● Point: One station uses one frequency per period, leaving M-1 frequencies for other
stations
● Example: M different stations can use the same Bss if appropriate modulation
technique like multiple FSK (MFSK) is used
17. Similarity to FDM
● Point: FHSS operates similarly to Frequency Division Multiplexing
● Example: Figure 6.31 shows comparison between four channels using FDM and four
channels using FHSS
●
18. FDM vs FHSS Allocation Difference
● Point: Both FDM and FHSS allocate 1/M of bandwidth per station, but allocation
methods differ
● Example: In FDM, each station gets fixed 1/M bandwidth allocation; in FHSS, each
station uses 1/M bandwidth but allocation changes hop to hop
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum:
. Bandwidth Expansion Process
● Point: DSSS expands the bandwidth of the original signal, but the process is
different from FHSS
● Example: Unlike FHSS which hops frequencies, DSSS uses a different spreading
method
2. Data Bit Replacement Method
● Point: In DSSS, we replace each data bit with n bits using a spreading code
● Example: Each single data bit is converted into multiple bits using a predetermined
code sequence
3. Chip Code Assignment
● Point: Each bit is assigned a code of n bits, called chips
● Example: The chip rate is n times that of the original data bit rate
Barker Sequence Example
4. Wireless LAN Implementation
● Point: Wireless LANs use the famous Barker sequence where n is 11
● Example: This means each data bit is replaced by 11 chips in the spreading process
5. Polar NRZ Encoding
● Point: The original signal and chips in the chip generator use polar NRZ encoding
● Example: Both the data signal and spreading code use the same encoding format for
consistency
6. Specific Chip Pattern
● Point: The spreading code consists of 11 chips with a specific pattern
● Example: The chip pattern is 10110111000 in the Barker sequence case
7. Signal Rate Multiplication
● Point: If the original signal rate is N, the spread signal rate becomes 11N
● Example: The data rate increases by a factor of 11 due to the 11-chip spreading
code
8. Bandwidth Expansion Factor
● Point: The required bandwidth for the spread signal is 11 times larger than the
original
● Example: Bandwidth expands from B to 11B due to the 11-chip spreading process
Security and Interference Benefits
9. Privacy Protection
● Point: The spread signal can provide privacy if the intruder does not know the code
● Example: Without knowledge of the spreading code, unauthorized users cannot
decode the transmitted data
10. Interference Immunity
● Point: The system can provide immunity against interference if each station uses a
different code
● Example: Different spreading codes for different stations prevent mutual interference
●
Bandwidth Sharing Considerations
11. Sharing Complexity
● Point: Bandwidth sharing in DSSS is more complex than in FHSS - the answer is
both no and yes
● Example: Whether sharing is possible depends on the type of spreading code used
12. Non-Shareable Spreading Codes
● Point: Some spreading codes spread signals that cannot be combined and
separated
● Example: Some wireless LANs use DSSS where the spread bandwidth cannot be
shared among multiple stations
13. Shareable Special Sequence Codes
● Point: Special sequence codes allow combining and separating of spread signals
● Example: Special spreading codes enable bandwidth sharing, as used in cellular
telephony applications
14. Wireless LAN Limitation
● Point: Some wireless LANs using DSSS cannot share the spread bandwidth
● Example: As referenced in Chapter 15, certain wireless LAN implementations don't
allow bandwidth sharing
15. Cellular Telephony Application
● Point: Special spreading codes enable DSSS use in cellular systems with bandwidth
sharing
● Example: As referenced in Chapter 16, cellular telephony uses special spreading
codes that allow multiple users to share the same bandwidth
Technical Implementation
16. Multiplication Process
● Point: The spread signal is created by multiplying the original data by the chips
● Example: Figure 6.33 demonstrates how original data is multiplied by chip sequence
to create the spread signal
17. Modulator Integration
● Point: The spreading process involves a modulator to create the final spread signal
● Example: The modulator combines the original signal with the spreading code to
produce the transmitted signal
