Unit 3

Bandwidth
Utilization
Dr.Rekha.K.S
Assoc.Prof,Dept of
CS&E,NIE
 Outline

6.1 MULTIPLEXING

6.2 SPREAD SPECTRUM

 Basic Questions

1.Name the components of data

communication?
2.What is Bandwidth?
3.What is Redundancy?

6.3
 Chapter 6: Objective
 The first section discusses 3 methods of multiplexing. The first
method is called frequency-division multiplexing (FDM).

 The second method is called wavelength division multiplexing

(WDM).

 The third method is called time-division multiplexing (TDM).

 The second section discusses spectrum spreading, in which we

first spread the bandwidth of a signal to add redundancy for the
purpose of more secure transmission before combining different
channels.

 The first method is called frequency hopping spread spectrum

(FHSS). The second method is called direct sequence spread
spectrum (DSSS).
 Bandwidth:

•It measures how much data can be sent over a

specific connection in a given amount of time.

Redundancy:
•The concept in detecting or correcting error
is called redundancy.To detect or correct
errors, we need to send some extra bits with
our data.

6.5
 What is the requirement for Bandwidth
utilization?

6.6
 6-1 MULTIPLEXING

•Multiplexing is the set of techniques that

allows the simultaneous transmission of
multiple signals across a single data link.
• As data and telecommunications use
increases, so does traffic.
• We can accommodate this increase by
continuing to add individual links each time a
new channel is needed
• or we can install higher-bandwidth links and
use each to carry multiple signals.
6.7
 6-1 MULTIPLEXING
•N input lines share the bandwidth of one link.
•The lines to the left direct their transmission
streams to a multiplexer(MUX)
•The MUX combines them into a single
stream(many to one)
•Receiver end the stream is fed into a
demultiplexer(DEMUX)
•It directs them to their corresponding lines.

6.8
 Figure 6.1: Dividing a link into channels

6.9
 Figure 6.2: Categories of multiplexing

6.10
 6.6.1 Frequency-Division Multiplexing
•Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an
analog technique that can be applied when the
bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the
combined bandwidths of the signals to be
transmitted.

•In FDM, signals generated by each sending device

modulate different carrier frequencies.

• These modulated signals are then combined into a

single composite signal that can be transported by
the link.
• channels can be separated by guard bands to
prevent signals from overlapping
6.11
 Figure 6.3: Frequency-division multiplexing

6.12
 Multiplexing process
•Each source generates a signal of a similar
frequency range.

•Inside the multiplexer, these similar signals

modulate different carrier frequencies(f1, f2 and f3)

•The resulting modulated signals are then combined

into a single composite signal that is sent out over a
media link that has enough bandwidth to
accommodate it.

6.13
 Figure 6.4: FDM Process

6.14
 DeMultiplexing process
•The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to
decompose the multiplexed signal into its constituent
component signal.

•The individual signals are then passed to a

demodulator that separates them from their carriers
and passes them to the output lines. as shown in
Figure 6.5

6.15
 Figure 6.5: FDM demultiplexing example

6.16
Example 6.1
Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4 kHz.
We need to combine three voice channels into a link with a
bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz. Show the
configuration, using the frequency domain. Assume there
are no guard bands.

Solution
We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a
different bandwidth, as shown in Figure 6.6.

6.17
 Figure 6.6: Example 6.6

6.18
Example 6.2
Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be
multiplexed together. What is the minimum bandwidth of
the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10 kHz
between the channels to prevent interference?

6.19
 Figure 6.7: Example 6.2

Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard
bands. This means that the required bandwidth
is at least 5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz,

6.20
 Analog Carrier System
•Hierarchical systems are used by telephone companies is
made up of groups, subgroups, super groups master groups
and jumbo groups
• Group : 48 khz of bandwidth and 12 voice channels are
multiplexed onto a higher bandwidth line to create group.

•Super Group: Five groups can be multiplexed to create a

composite signal called a super group.(240 KHZ bandwidth
and 60 voice channel)

• Master group:10 sub groups are multiplexed to create a

master group. (2,52 MHz bandwidth and 600 voice channel)

•Jumbo group: six master groups can be combined into a

jumbo group. (16.984 MHZ bandwidth)
6.21
 Figure 6.9: Analog hierarchy

6.22
 6.6.2 Wavelength-Division Multiplexing

•Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is

designed to use the high-data-rate capability of
fiber-optic cable.

•The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data

rate of metallic transmission cable,

•but using a fiber-optic cable for a single line wastes

the available bandwidth.

•Multiplexing allows us to combine several lines into

one.
6.23
 6.6.2 Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
•WDM and FDM same, except the multiplexing and
demultiplexing involve optical signals transmitted
through fiber optic channels.

•The frequencies combined are very high.

•Figure 6.10 gives a conceptual view of a WDM

Multiplexer and demultiplexer.

•Very narrow band of light from different source are

combined to make a wider band of light.
•At the receiver the signals are separated by the
demultiplexer.
6.24
 Figure 6.10: Wavelength-division multiplexing

6.25
 Prism in wavelength division
multiplexing and demultiplexing
•The combining and splitting of light sources are
handled by a prism.

•A multiplexer can be made to combine several input

beams of light each containing a narrow band of
frequencies, into one output beam of wider band of
frequencies.

•A demultiplexer can be made to reverse the

process .

6.26
 Figure 6.11: Prisms in wave-length division multiplexing

6.27
 6.6.3 Time-Division Multiplexing
•Time-division multiplexing (TDM)is a digiral
multiplexing technique for combining several low-
rate channels into one high-rate channel

•digital process that allows several connections to

share the high bandwidth of a link.

•Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in

FDM, time is shared.

•Each connection occupies a portion of time in the

link.

6.28
 Figure 6.12: TDM

Figure 6.12 gives a conceptual view of TDM.

The link is shown sectioned by time rather than by frequency.

portions of signals 1, 2, 3, and 4 occupy the link sequentially.

6.29
 We can divide the TDM into two different
schemes

1.Synchronous TDM
2.Statistical TDM

6.30
 Synchronous TDM

•The data flow of each input connection is divided

into units.

•Each input occupies one time slot.

•Each input unit becomes one output unit and

occupies one output line slot

•Input time slot is T s, then output is T/n s

• a unit in the output connection has shorter duration,

it travels faster.
6.31
 Figure 6.13: Synchronous time-division multiplexing

6.32
 In synchronous TDM, a round data units from
each input is collected into frame.

A frame is divided into n time slots

If duration of input is T,

The duration of each slot is T/n

The duration of each frame is T

6.33
Example 6.5
In Figure 6.13, the data rate for each input connection is 1
kbps. If 1 bit at a time is multiplexed (a unit is 1 bit), what is
the duration of

1.each input slot?

Solution

The data rate of each input connection is 1 kbps. This means

that the bit duration is 1/1000 s or 1 ms. The duration of the
input time slot is 1 ms (same as bit duration).

6.34
Example 6.5 (continued)

2. 2. each output slot?

Solution
The duration of each output time slot is one-third of the
input time slot. This means that the duration of the output
time slot is 1/3 ms.

3. each frame?
Solution
Each frame carries three output time slots. So the duration
of a frame is 3 × (1/3) ms, or 1 ms. The duration of a frame
is the same as the duration of an input unit.

6.35
Interleaving
•TDM can be visualized as two fast-rotating switches, one
on the multiplexing side and the other on the demultiplexing
side.

•The switches are synchronized and rotate at the same

speed, but in opposite direction.

•Multiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a

connection, that connection send a unit onto the path. This
process is called interleaving.

•Demultiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a

connection, that connection receive a unit from the path.
6.36
 Figure 6.15: Interleaving

6.37
yEmpty Slots
Synchronous TDM is not as efficient as it could be.

If a source does not have data to send, the corresponding

slot in the output frame is empty.

Figure 6.18 shows the case in which one of the input line
has no data to send and one slot in another input line has
discontinuous data

6.38
 Figure 6.18: Empty slots

Disadvantage:

The first output frame has three slots filled,

the second frame has two slots filled and
third frame has three slots filled. No frame
is full.
6.39
 Data
y Rate Management

Problem with TDM is how to handle a disparity in the input

data rates.

If data rates are not same three strategies can be used

1.Multilevel Multiplexing
2.Multiple Slot Allocation
3.Pulse stuffing

6.40
 Multilevel Multiplexing

•Multilevel Multiplexing is a technique used when the data

rate of an input line is a multiple of others.

•For example in fig.6.19 we have two inputs of 20kbps and

three inputs of 40kbps.

•The first two input lines can be multiplexed together to

provide a data rate equal to the last three.

•A second level of multiplexing can create an output of 160

kbps.
6.41
 Figure 6.19: Multilevel multiplexing

6.42
 Multiple-slot multiplexing

•It is more efficient to allot more than one slot in a frame to

a single input line.

•For ex: we might have an input line that has data rate that is
a multiple of another input.

•In figure 6.20 the input line with a 50 kbps data rate can be
given two slots in the output.

•We insert a demultiplexer in the line to make two inputs

out of one.
6.43
 Figure 6.20: Multiple-slot multiplexing

6.44
 Pulse stuffine
•Sometime the bit rates of sources are not multiple integers of
each other.

•Neither of the techniques of Multiple Multiplexing and Multiple

slot Allocation can be applied.

•One solution is to make the highest input data rate the dominant
data rate and then add dummy bits to the input lines with lower
rates.

•This will increase their rates. This technique is called pulse

stuffing, bit padding or bit stuffing.

•The input with a data rate of 46 is pulse stuffed to increase the

rate to 50kbps
6.45
 Figure 6.21: Pulse stuffing

6.46
 Frame Synchronizing
•The implementation of TDM is complex compared to FDM.

•If the Multiplexer and DeMuliplexer are not synchronized, a bit

belonging to one channel may be received by the wrong channel.

•For this reason, one or more synchronization bits are usually

added in the beginning of each frame.

•These bits called framing bits, follow a pattern, frame to frame

that allows the demultiplexer to synchronize with the incoming
stream so that it can separate the time slots accurately.

•The synchronization information consists of 1 bit per frame,

alternating between 0 and 1 as shown in fig.6.22
6.47
 Figure 6.22: Framing bits

6.48
 Digital hierarchy
Telephone companies implement TDM through a hierarchy
of digital signals called digital signal(DS) service or digital
hierarchy

•DS-0 is single digital channel of 64kbps

•DS-1 is 1.544 Mbps service
•DS-2 is a 6.312 Mbps service
•DS-3 is a 44.376 Mbps service
•Ds-4 is a 274.176 Mbps service

6.49
 Figure 6.23: Digital hierarchy

6.50
 T-Lines

DS-0, DS-1 are the name of the services.

To implement those services, the telephone
companies use TLines(T-1 toT-4)

The T-1 line is used to implement DS-1; T-2 is

used to implement DS-2; and so on.

6.51
 Table 6.1: DS and T line rates

6.52
 T Lines for Analog Transmission

•T lines are digital lines designed for the

transmission of digital data, audio or video.

•They are used for analog transmission(regular

telephone connections)

•the analog signals are first sampled, then time

division multiplexed

6.53
 Figure 6.24: T-1 line

The figure below shows how 24 voice channels can be

multiplexed on to one T-1 Line

The frame used on a T-1 line is usually 193 bits divided into 24
slots of 8bits each plus 1 extra bit for
synchronisation(24X8+1=193 sec)
6.54
 E line

Europeans use a version of T-Lines called E-

Lines. The two systems are identical. But their
capacity differ

Table 6.2: E line rates

6.56
 Statistical Time Division Multiplexing

•Slots are dynamically allocated to improve

bandwidth efficiency

•The number of slots in each frame is less than the

number of input lines.

•The multiplexer checks each input line in round

robin fashion

•It allocates a slot for an input line, if the line has

data to send other wise it skips the line and checks the
next line
6.57
6.58
 Figure 6.26: TDM slot comparison

6.59
 Difference between Synchronous TDS and
Statistical TDM

In the former, some slots are empty

because the corresponding line does not
have data to send.

In the later, however no slot is left empty

as long as there are data to be sent by any
input line.

6.60
 Difference between Synchronous TDS and Statistical
TDM
An output slot in synchronous TDM is totally occupied by data,
where as the Statistical TDM carry data as well as address of the
destination.

In synchronous TDM there is no need for addressing,

synchronization and pre assigned relationship between the input
s and outputs to serve as address.

In statistical multiplexing, there is no fixed relationship between

the inputs and outputs because there are no pre assigned or
reserved slots.

6.61
 No Synchronization bit
The frames in statistical TDM need not be
synchronized, so we do not need
synchronization bits

Bandwidth
The designers of statistical TDM define the
capacity of the link based on the statistics of
the load for each channel

6.62
6.63
 6-2 SPREAD SPECTRUM

In Spread spectrum we combine signals from

different sources to fit into a lager bandwidth.

In wireless applications, stations must be able

to share this medium without interception by
an eavesdropper and without being subject to
jamming from a malicious intruder

To achieve these goals, spread spectrum

6.64
techniques add redundancy
 SPREAD SPECTRUM

To achieve these goals, spread spectrum

techniques add redundancy,they spread the
original spectrum needed for each station.

If the required bandwidth for each station is B,

spread spectrum expands it to BSS
B >> BSS

6.65
 Two principles of SPREAD SPECTRUM

1.The bandwidth allocated to each station

needs to be larger than what is needed, this
allows redundancy
2.The expanding of the original bandwidth B
to the bandwidth Bss must be done by the
process that is independent of the original
signal.

6.66
 Figure 6.27: Spread spectrum

6.67
 FHHS(Frequency Hoping Spread Spectrum
•FHSS technique uses M different carrier frequencies that
are modulated by the source signal.

•The bandwithe Bfhss>>B

•A pseudorandom code generator called psuedorandom

noise(PN) creates a k-bit pattern for every hopping period Th

•The frequency table uses the pattern to find the frequency to

be used for this hopping period and passes it to the
frequency synthesizer.

•The frequency synthesizer creates a carrier signal for that

frequency, and the source signal modulates the carrier
signal.
6.68
 Figure 6.28: Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)

6.69
 Figure 6.29: Frequency selection in FHSS

The pseudorandom code generator will create 8 different

frequencies in the frequency table, it is reapeated after 8
hoppings.
6.70
 Figure 6.30: FHSS cycles

6.71
 Figure 6.31: Bandwidth sharing

6.72
 6.2.2 DSSS

•The direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)

technique also expands the bandwidth of the
original signal, but the process is different.

•In DSSS, we replace each data bit with n bits using

a spreading code.

•In other words, each bit is assigned a code of n bits,

called chips, where the chip rate is n times that of
the data bit.

•Figure 6.32 shows the concept of DSSS.

6.73
 Figure 6.32: DSSS

6.74
 Figure 6.32: DSSS example

6.75