ECE 542

Telecommunications Engineering
Lecture 4
Multiplexing and De-multiplexing: Frequency (FDM) and Time (TDM).

Lecture Objective:
• Multiplexing and demultiplexing process, features of…
• Multiple Access techniques…, implementation of…
• Spread spectrum, implementation of…, features of…, benefits of…,

Multiplexing and De-multiplexing

The bandwidth of a medium linking two devices could be greater than the
bandwidth needs of the communicating devices. When this happens, the
implication is that there would be underutilization of the capacity of the data
link. Therefore, for the purpose of efficiency the link can be shared.
An efficient system maximizes the utilization of all resources and bandwidth is
one of the most precious resources we have in data communications.
Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allow the simultaneous transmission
of multiple signals across a single data link.
Multiplexing is commonly applied in long-haul communications. The trunks on
these long-haul networks are usually high-capacity fibre, coaxial or microwave
links which by multiplexing can simultaneously carry large numbers of voice and
data.
In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of one link. The basic
format of a multiplexed system is shown in the figure below. The multiplexer on
the left accepts the transmission stream from the multiple input lines and
combines these streams into a single stream (many to one). On the output part,
a demultiplexer separates the single streams into its constituent streams (one
to many) and directs them to their corresponding lines. In multiplexing, link
refers to the physical path (transmission medium) while channel refers to the
portion of a link that carries a transmission between a given pair of lines. A link
can have numerous (n) channels.

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The popularity of multiplexing can be attributed to:
• Higher data rates translate to more cost-effective transmission facility.
This means that for a given application over a given distance, the cost per
kbps reduces with an increase in the data rate of the transmission
facility. Similarly, the cost of transmission and receiving equipment, per
kbps, declines with increasing data rate.
• Most individual data communicating devices require relatively modest
data rate support. For instance, for many terminal and personal
computer applications that do not involve Web access or intensive
graphics, a data rate of between 9600 bps and 64 kbps is generally
adequate.
The above statements also apply to voice communications.
There are three basic multiplexing techniques: frequency-division multiplexing,
wavelength-division multiplexing, and time-division multiplexing. The first two
are techniques designed for analogue signals, the third, for digital signals. For
the purpose of this course, only FDM and TDM will be considered.

Frequency Division Multiplexing

Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analogue technique that can be
applied when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined
bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted. A number of signals can be carried

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simultaneously if each signal is modulated onto a different carrier frequency
and the carrier frequencies are sufficiently separated that the bandwidths of
the signals do not significantly overlap. These bandwidth ranges are the
channels through which the various signals travel. Channels can be separated
by strips of unused bandwidth—guard bands—to prevent signals from
overlapping. In addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original
data frequencies. Illustrations of FDM are shown in the figures below:

Even though FDM is considered an analogue multiplexing technique, it doesn’t

mean that it cannot be used for combination of digital signals. The simple
implication is that the digital signal needs to be converted to analogue signal
first before FDM can be used on them.

FDM Multiplexing Process:

Each source generates a signal of a similar frequency range. Inside the
multiplexer, these similar signals modulate different carrier frequencies (f1, f2,
and f3). Because multiple carriers are to be used, each is referred to as a
subcarrier. The resulting modulated signals are then combined into a single
composite signal known as the baseband signal that is sent out over a media
link that has enough bandwidth to accommodate it.

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 Multiplexing (Transmitter)

Spectrum of composite baseband modulating signal

The spectrum of each signal is shifted to be centred on a subcarrier, fi. In order

for this to work, each subcarrier, fi , must be chosen so that the bandwidths of
the various signals do not significantly overlap. This is to enable the recovery of
the original signals (if there is an overlap then this recovery will be impossible).
The composite signal MAY then be shifted as a whole to another carrier
frequency by an additional modulation step. The FDM signal s(t) has a total
bandwidth B, where B < ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐵𝑖 . This analogue signal may be transmitted over
a suitable medium.
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FDM Demultiplexing Process:
The demultiplexer uses a series of filters (bandpass) centred at fi to decompose
the multiplexed signal into its constituent component signals. Each filter has a
bandwidth, Bi, for 1 ≤ i ≤ n. This way, the signal is again split into its component
parts. The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that separates
them from their carriers and passes them to the output lines.

Demultiplexing (Receiver)

Example 1
Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4 kHz. We need to
combine three voice channels into a link with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to
32 kHz. Show the configuration, using the frequency domain. Assume there are
no guard bands.

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Solution
We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a different bandwidth,
as shown in the figure below. We use the 20- to 24-kHz bandwidth for the first
channel, the 24- to 28-kHz bandwidth for the second channel, and the 28- to 32-
kHz bandwidth for the third one. Then we combine them as illustrated. At the
receiver, each channel receives the entire signal, using a filter to separate out its
own signal. The first channel uses a filter that passes frequencies between 20
and 24 kHz and filters out (discards) any other frequencies. The second channel
uses a filter that passes frequencies between 24 and 28 kHz, and the third
channel uses a filter that passes frequencies between 28 and 32 kHz. Each
channel then shifts the frequency to start from zero.

Example 2
Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be multiplexed together.
What is the minimum bandwidth of the link if there is a need for a guard band
of 10 kHz between the channels to prevent interference?

Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This means that the
required bandwidth is at least 5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz, as shown below.

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Time-Division Multiplexing
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that allows several
connections to share the high bandwidth of a link. TDM is applied primarily on
digital signals but can be applied on analogue signals as well. Instead of sharing
a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM, time is shared. Each connection occupies
a portion of time in the link.

Even though TDM is a digital multiplexing scheme, analogue input can be

sampled, changed to digital data, and then multiplexed by using TDM.
There are two categorisations of TDM:
• Synchronous TDM and
• Statistical TDM

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Synchronous TDM
In synchronous TDM, each input connection has an allotment in the output even
if it is not sending data. The data flow of each input connection is divided into
units, where each input occupies one input time slot. A unit can be 1 bit, one
character, or one block of data. Each input unit becomes one output unit and
occupies one output time slot. However, the duration of an output time slot is
n times shorter than the duration of an input time slot. If an input time slot is
T s, the output time slot is T/n s, where n is the number of connections. In other
words, a unit in the output connection has a shorter duration; it travels faster.
In synchronous TDM, the incoming signals are briefly buffered. The length of
each buffer is typically one bit or character. The buffers are then scanned
sequentially to form a composite stream of data mc(t) as shown in the figure
below. The scan process is fast enough so the buffers are emptied before more
data can arrive. The data rate of mc(t) must therefore be at least equal to the
sum of the data rates of the mi(t).

The data are organized into frames with each frame containing a cycle of time
slots. One or more slots are dedicated to each source data in each frame. The
sequence of slots dedicated to one source, from frame to frame, is called a
channel. The slot length equals the transmitter buffer length, typically a bit or a
byte (character).

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If we have n connections, a frame is divided into n time slots and one slot is
allocated for each unit, one for each input line. If the duration of the input unit
is T, the duration of each slot is T/n and the duration of each frame is T. The data
rate of the output link must be n times the data rate of a connection to
guarantee the flow of data. In the figure above, the data rate of the link is 3
times the data rate of a connection; likewise, the duration of a unit on a
connection is 3 times that of the time slot (duration of a unit on the link).
In the receiver, the above process is reversed as depicted in the figure below.

Simply put, in synchronous TDM, the data rate of the link is n times faster, and
the unit duration is n times shorter.
The term synchronous TDM is used not because the transmission is
synchronous, but because the time slots are preassigned to sources and fixed.
The time slots for each source are transmitted whether or not the source has
data to send. This also applies to FDM and along with TDM have the implication
of capacity wastage in order to achieve simplicity of implementation. Even when
fixed assignment is used, however, it is possible for a synchronous TDM device

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to handle sources of different data rates. For example, the slowest input
device could be assigned one slot per cycle, while faster devices are assigned
multiple slots per cycle.
Statistical TDM
The inefficiency of synchronous TDM due to the allocation of slots which may
not be in use was pointed out in the previous section. In statistical time-division
multiplexing, slots are dynamically allocated to improve bandwidth efficiency.
The multiplexer checks each input line in round-robin fashion; it allocates a slot
for an input line if the line has data to send; otherwise, it skips the line and
checks the next line. Only when an input line has a slot’s worth of data to send
is it given a slot in the output frame.
A comparison of statistical and synchronous TDM are shown below.

Similar to synchronous TDM, statistical TDM has a number of input lines on one
side and a higher speed multiplexed line on the other side. Each input line has a
buffer associated with it. There are n input lines but only k time slots available
on the TDM frame where k < n. This means that the number of slots in each
frame is less than the number of input lines. For input, the function of the
multiplexer is to scan the input buffers, collecting data until a frame is filled, and
then send the frame. On output, the multiplexer receives a frame and distributes
the slots of data to the appropriate output buffers.

Addressing in statistical TDM:

An output slot in synchronous TDM is totally occupied by data; in statistical TDM,
a slot needs to carry data as well as the address of the destination. In
synchronous TDM, there is no need for addressing; synchronization and
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preassigned relationships between the inputs and outputs serve as an address.
If the multiplexer and the demultiplexer are synchronized, this relationship is
guaranteed. Due to the absence of reserved slots in statistical TDM, there is no
fixed relationship between the inputs and outputs. The address of the receiver
needs to be included in each slot to show its destination.
Slot Size in statistical TDM:
Due to the presence of addresses in the slot of statistical TDM, the ratio of the
data size to address size must be reasonable to make transmission efficient. For
instance, it would be inefficient to send 1 bit per slot as data when the address
is 3 bits. This would result in an overhead of 300 percent. In statistical TDM, a
block of data is usually many bytes while the address is just a few bytes to reduce
the possibility of this inefficiency.
Synchronization Bit in statistical TDM:
There is no synchronization bit in statistical TDM. At the frame level, there is
no need for synchronization hence synchronization bits are not needed.
Bandwidth utilization in statistical TDM:
In statistical TDM, the capacity of the link is normally less than the sum of the
capacities of each channel. The capacity of statistical TDM is defined based on
the statistics of the load in each channel. If on the average only a certain
percentage of the input slots are filled, the capacity of the link reflects this.

Fundamentals of channelization: Frequency (FDMA), Time (TDMA) and Code

(CDMA).
Channelization (or channel partition, as it is sometimes called) is a multiple-
access method in which the available bandwidth of a link is shared in time,
frequency, or through code, among different stations.

Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)

In frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), the available bandwidth is divided
into frequency bands. Each station is allocated a band to send its data. In other
words, each band is reserved for a specific station, and it belongs to the station
all the time. To prevent station interferences, the allocated bands are separated
from one another by small guard bands. The figure below depicts this.

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Key features of FDMA include:
• Each subchannel is dedicated to a single station; it is not shared.
• If a subchannel is not in use, it is idle; the capacity is wasted.
• FDMA is relatively less complex than TDMA and requires fewer overhead
bits because each subchannel is dedicated.
• Individual subchannels must be separated by guard bands to minimize
interference.

It should be clearly stated that although FDMA and frequency-division

multiplexing (FDM) conceptually seem similar, there are differences between
them. FDM is a physical layer technique that combines the loads from low
bandwidth channels and transmits them by using a high-bandwidth channel. The
channels that are combined are low-pass. The multiplexer modulates the
signals, combines them, and creates a bandpass signal. The bandwidth of each
channel is shifted by the multiplexer.
On the other hand, FDMA, is an access method in the data-link layer. The
datalink layer in each station tells its physical layer to make a bandpass signal
from the data passed to it. The signal must be created in the allocated band.
There is no physical multiplexer at the physical layer. The signals created at each
station are automatically bandpass-filtered. They are mixed when they are sent
to the common channel.

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Time division multiple access (TDMA)
In time-division multiple access (TDMA), the stations share the bandwidth of the
channel in time. Each station is allocated a time slot during which it can send
data. Each station transmits its data in its assigned time slot. The figure below
shows the concept of TDMA.

The main problem with TDMA lies in achieving synchronization between the
different stations. Each station needs to know the beginning of its slot and the
location of its slot. This may be difficult because of propagation delays
introduced in the system if the stations are spread over a large area. To
compensate for the delays, we can insert guard times. Synchronization is
normally accomplished by having some synchronization bits (normally
referred to as preamble bits) at the beginning of each slot.
It is also important to note that although TDMA and time-division multiplexing
(TDM) conceptually seem the same, there are differences between them. TDM
is a physical layer technique that combines the data from slower channels and
transmits them by using a faster channel. The process uses a physical
multiplexer that interleaves data units from each channel. TDMA, on the other
hand, is an access method in the data-link layer. The data-link layer in each
station tells its physical layer to use the allocated time slot. There is no physical
multiplexer at the physical layer.

Important features of TDMA include:

• The downlink channel may be on a separate frequency band, as in our
example. This is referred to as TDMA/FDD (FDD – Frequency Division
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 Duplexing). With TDMA/FDD, the time slots assigned for subscriber
station reception are typically nonoverlapping with that station’s transmit
time slots.
• The uplink and downlink transmission may be on the same frequency
band, which is referred to as TDMA/TDD (TDD – Time Division Duplexing).
• For an individual station, data transmission occurs in bursts rather than
continuously.
• Guard times are needed between time slots, to account for lack of perfect
synchronization among the subscriber station.
• Each subchannel is dedicated to a single station; it is not shared.

Code-division multiple access (CDMA):

This involves two stations using unique codes to communicate with each other
alongside other communicating station pairs with their own unique
communication codes and all using the came channel.
Let us assume we have four stations, 1, 2, 3, and 4, connected to the same
channel. The data from station 1 are d1, from station 2 are d2, etc. The code
(which is a sequence of numbers called chips) assigned to the first station is c1,
to the second is c2, etc. We assume that the assigned codes have two properties:
• If we multiply each code by another, we get 0.
• If we multiply each code by itself, we get 4 (the number of stations).
Station 1 multiplies its data by its code to get d1 ⋅ c1. Station 2 multiplies its data
by its code to get d2 ⋅ c2, etc. The data that go on the channel are the sum of all
these terms, as shown in the box below. Any station that wants to receive data
from one of the other three multiplies the data on the channel by the code of
the sender. For example, suppose stations 1 and 2 are talking to each other.
Station 2 wants to hear what station 1 is saying. It multiplies the data on the
channel by c1, the code of station 1. Because (c1 ⋅ c1) is 4, but (c2 ⋅ c1), (c3 ⋅ c1),
and (c4 ⋅ c1) are all 0s, station 2 divides the result by 4 to get the data from
station 1.

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Spread Spectrum
The spread spectrum technique was developed initially for military and
intelligence requirements. Like in multiplexing, signals from different sources
are also combined to fit into a larger bandwidth. However, the goal of spread
spectrum is not only for efficient bandwidth utilization, it is also as a means of
reducing the risk of interception by an eavesdropper or signal jamming from a
malicious intruder. This is because spread spectrum is designed to be used in
wireless applications.
To achieve its set objectives, spread spectrum techniques add redundancy; they
spread the original spectrum needed for each station. If the required bandwidth
for each station is B, spread spectrum expands it to Bss, such that Bss >> B. The
expanded bandwidth allows the source to wrap its message in a protective
envelope for a more secure transmission.
The goal of spread spectrum is achieved by:
1. The bandwidth allocated to each station needs to be, by far, larger than
what is needed. This allows redundancy.
2. The expanding of the original bandwidth B to the bandwidth B ss must be
done by a process that is independent of the original signal. In other
words, the spreading process occurs after the signal is created by the
source.

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After the signal is created by the source, the spreading process uses a spreading
code and spreads the bandwidth. The figure below shows the original
bandwidth B and the spread bandwidth BSS. The spreading code is a series of
numbers that look random but are actually a pattern.

The end-to-end spread spectrum process is shown below:

Input is fed into a channel encoder that produces an analogue signal with a
relatively narrow bandwidth around some centre frequency. This signal is
further modulated using a sequence of digits known as a spreading code or
spreading sequence which is generated by a pseudonoise or pseudorandom
number generator. This modulation has the effect of significantly increasing the
bandwidth (spread the spectrum) of the signal to be transmitted. The same digit
sequence is used to demodulate the spread spectrum signal and fed into a
decoder to recover the data. Although this technique can be seen as a waste of
spectrum, there are several benefits which comes from it such as:
• The signal gaining immunity from various kinds of noise and multipath
distortion.
• Ability to be used for hiding and encryption of signals. Since the signal can
be recovered with only the correct spreading code.
• Possibility of multiple users making use of the same higher bandwidth
with little interference. This principle is used in Code Division Multiplexing
(CDM) or Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA).

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There are two techniques used in spread spectrum:
• Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
• Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)

Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)

Developed during WWII by actress Hedy Lammar and classical composer
George Antheil. Patent given to government.
The frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) technique uses M different
carrier frequencies that are modulated by the source signal. At one moment,
the signal modulates one carrier frequency; at the next moment, the signal
modulates another carrier frequency. Although the modulation is done using
one carrier frequency at a time, M frequencies are used in the long run. The
bandwidth occupied by a source after spreading is BFHSS >> B.
There are two types of systems:
Slow Hopping: Dwell time long enough to transmit several bits in a row
(timeslot)
Fast Hopping: Dwell time on the order of a bit or fraction of a bit (primarily for
military systems)
Transmitter and receiver must know hopping pattern or algorithm that
determines the pattern before communications. For this, there are two types of
patters:
Cyclic pattern: Best for low number of frequencies and combating small-scale
fading. Example with four frequencies: f4, f2, f1, f3, f4, f2, f1, f3, ….
Random pattern: Best for large number of frequencies, combating co-channel
interference, and interference averaging n Example with six frequencies: f1, f3,
f2, f1, f6, f5, f4, f2, f6, … Random number generators with same seed are used
at both ends.

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The figure above shows the general layout for FHSS. A pseudorandom code
generator, called pseudorandom noise (PN), creates a k-bit pattern for every
hopping period Th. The frequency table uses the pattern to find the frequency
to be used for this hopping period and passes it to the frequency synthesizer.
The frequency synthesizer creates a carrier signal of that frequency, and the
source signal modulates the carrier signal.
Suppose we have decided to have eight hopping frequencies. This is extremely
low for real applications and is just for illustration. In this case, M is 8 and k is 3.
The pseudorandom code generator will create eight different 3-bit patterns.
These are mapped to eight different frequencies in the frequency table (see
Figure below).

The pattern for this station is 101, 111, 001, 000, 010, 011, 100. Note that the
pattern is pseudorandom; it is repeated after eight hoppings. This means that at
hopping period 1, the pattern is 101. The frequency selected is 700 kHz; the
source signal modulates this carrier frequency. The second k-bit pattern
selected is 111, which selects the 900-kHz carrier; the eighth pattern is 100, and
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the frequency is 600 kHz. After eight hoppings, the pattern repeats, starting
from 101 again. The signal hops from one frequency to another is shown in the
figure below. 100kHz is the assumed required bandwidth of the original signal

It can be shown that this scheme can accomplish the previously mentioned
goals. If there are many k-bit patterns and the hopping period is short, a sender
and receiver can have privacy. If an intruder tries to intercept the transmitted
signal, she can only access a small piece of data because she does not know the
spreading sequence to quickly adapt herself to the next hop. The scheme also
has an antijamming effect. A malicious sender may be able to send noise to jam
the signal for one hopping period (randomly), but not for the whole period.

Concept and Time durations in FHSS

The sequence of carrier frequencies transmitted by a frequency-hopping system

is called the frequency-hopping pattern. The set of M possible carrier
frequencies {f1, f2, . . . , fM} is called the hopset. The rate at which the carrier
frequency changes is called the hop rate. Frequency hopping occurs over a
frequency band called the hopping band, which includes M frequency channels.
Each frequency channel has a single center frequency with bandwidth B.

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The time interval between hops is called the hop interval. Its duration is called
the hop duration and is denoted by Th. The hopping band has hopping
bandwidth W ≥ MB

Fig: Time durations and amplitude changes of a frequency-hopping pulse

A frequency-hopping pulse with a fixed carrier frequency occurs during a portion

of the hop interval called the dwell interval. The dwell time is the duration of
the dwell interval during which the channel symbols are transmitted and the
peak amplitude occurs. The hop duration Th is equal to the sum of the dwell
time Td and the switching time Tsw. The switching time is equal to the dead time,
which is the duration of the interval when no signal is present, plus the rise and
fall times of a pulse.
Even if the switching time is insignificant in the transmitted signal, it is more
substantial in the dehopped signal in the receiver because of the imperfect
synchronization of received and receiver-generated waveforms.

Bandwidth sharing in FHSS:

If the number of hopping frequencies is M, we can multiplex M channels into
one by using the same Bss bandwidth. This is possible because a station uses just
one frequency in each hopping period; M − 1 other frequencies can be used by
M − 1 other stations. In other words, M different stations can use the same Bss
if an appropriate modulation technique such as multiple FSK (MFSK) is used.
FHSS is similar to FDM, as shown in the figure below. The figure shows an
example of four channels using FDM and four channels using FHSS. In FDM, each
station uses 1/M of the bandwidth, but the allocation is fixed; in FHSS, each
station uses 1/M of the bandwidth, but the allocation changes hop to hop.

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Processing Gain
Processing gain is the ratio of the duration of the bit to the duration of the chip
N = T/Tc
Processing gain is also the ratio between the bandwidth of the spread signal to
the bandwidth of the data signal.
In many cases, this is also the ratio of the height of the autocorrelation peak to
the maximum sidelobe. This ratio depends on the spreading code properties.

Advantages of FHSS
1. The processing gain, PG is higher than that of DSSS system.
2. Provide the greatest amount of spreading.
3. Large bandwidths
4. Short acquisition time
5. The synchronization is not greatly dependent on the distance. (Less
distance effect)
6. The serial search system (Serial (linear) search is a naïve way of
searching an object in a list - starts with the first item and then moves
to each item in turn, until either a match is found or it reaches the end
of the data with no match found) with FHSS needs shorter time for
acquisition.
7. Can be programmed to avoid some parts of the spectrum
Disadvantages of FHSS
1. It needs complex and costly digital frequency synthesizers are required
to be used.
2. It needs error detection.

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 3. The processing gain is higher than that of a direct sequence spread
spectrum.
4. This system is not useful for the range and range rate measurement.
5. Obsolete for Wifi
Some more advantages of FHSS compared to DSSS are given below:
1. FSSS is less susceptible to be near-far problems than DSSS. (Near–far
problem is the effect of difficulty of hearing a weak signal from a far
source due to the presence of a strong signal from a nearer source. This
could be due to adjacent-channel interference, co-channel interference,
distortion, capture effect, dynamic range limitation etc)
2. The processing gain is higher than that of DSSS system.
3. FHSS can produce signals of wider bandwidth than DS/SS.
4. In FSSS the problem of a relative power level of co-channel signals is not
as critical as in DSSS.
Major Applications of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FH-SS) System
1. For mobile communication, CDMA systems based on FHSS transmissions
are particularly appealing. (GSM – 2G cellular system)
2. Wi-Fi's local area networks (WLAN) standard. - obsolete
3. Bluetooth's Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) protocol.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

The direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) technique also expands the
bandwidth of the original signal, but the process is different. In DSSS, we replace
each data bit with n bits using a spreading code. In other words, each bit is
assigned a code of n bits, called chips, where the chip rate is n times that of the
data bit. The spreading code spreads the signal across a wider frequency band
in direct proportion to the number of bits used. Therefore, a 10-bit spreading
code spreads the signal across a frequency band that is 10 times greater than a
1-bit spreading code. The concept of DSSS is shown below.

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One technique with direct sequence spread spectrum is to combine the digital
information stream with the spreading code bit stream using an exclusive-OR
(XOR). The XOR obeys the following rules:

0⊕0=0 0⊕1=1 1⊕0=1 1⊕1=0

The figure below uses DSSS on a data input of 01001011. Note that an
information bit of 1 inverts the spreading code bits in the combination, while
an information bit of 0 causes the spreading code bits to be transmitted
without inversion. The combination bit stream has the data rate of the original
spreading code sequence, so it has a wider bandwidth than the information
stream. In this example, the spreading code bit stream is clocked at four times
the information rate.

Bandwidth Sharing in DSSS:

Sharing of bandwidth in DSSS is not as clear-cut as seen in FHSS. If we use a
spreading code that spreads signals (from different stations) that cannot be
combined and separated, we cannot share a bandwidth. However, if we use a
special type of sequence code that allows the combining and separating of
spread signals, we can share the bandwidth.

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Advantages of DSSS
1. It has best noise and anti-jam performance.
2. Simple hard ware implementation.
3. It supports high coverage range due to low SNR requirement at receiver.
4. Does not require high speed fast setting frequency synthesizer.
5. It has best discrimination against multi-path signals.
6. The unidentified receivers find it difficult to detect the direct sequence
signals.
7. Determination of relative timing between transmitter and receiver.
Disadvantages of DSSS
1. DSSS has a longer acquisition time.
2. It requires wideband channel with small phase distortion.
3. The pseudo noise generator must generate sequence at high rates.
4. Near-far problem.
5. Fast code generator needed.
6. The system is prone to error at lower level than frequency hopping spread
spectrum.
Major Applications of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS-SS)
1. Anti-jamming application that protects a jamming signal.
2. Signal transmission with low detectability — the signal is intentionally
delivered at a low power level. As a result, the signal is known as an LPI
(low probability of intercept) signal since it has a low risk of being
intercepted.
3. Supporting a large number of simultaneous signal transmissions on the
same channel, such as code division multiple access (CDMA) or Spread
Spectrum Multiple Access (SSMA).

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