Unit 3

Sadiq khan
What is Multiplexing?
• Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple
data streams over a single medium. The process of combining the
data streams is known as multiplexing and hardware used for
multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.
• Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX)
that combines n input lines to generate a single output line.
Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one output
line.
• Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer
(DEMUX) available at the receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal
into its component signals (one input and n outputs). Therefore, we
can say that demultiplexing follows the one-to-many approach
Why Multiplexing?

•The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver.
The medium can only have one signal at a time.
•If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be
divided in such a way that each signal is given some portion of the available bandwidth.
For example: If there are 10 signals and bandwidth of medium is100 units, then the 10 unit is shared by each signal.
•When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of collision.
Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.
•Transmission services are very expensive
Concept of Multiplexing

•The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer combines
the signals to form a composite signal.
•The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer
separates a signal to component signals and transfers them to their respective destinations
Advantages of Multiplexing:

• More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.

• The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectivel
Frequency Division Multiplexing
• When the carrier is frequency, FDM is used. FDM is an analog
technology. FDM divides the carrier bandwidth in logical channels
and allocates one user to each channel. Each user can use the
channel frequency independently and has exclusive access of it. All
channels are divided in such a way that they do not overlap with each
other. Channels are separated by guard bands. Guard band is a
frequency which is not used by either channel.
Time Division Multiplexing
• TDM is applied primarily on digital signals but can be applied on
analog signals as well. In TDM the shared channel is divided among its
user by means of time slot. Each user can transmit data within the
provided time slot only. Digital signals are divided in frames,
equivalent to time slot i.e. frame of an optimal size which can be
transmitted in given time slot.
• TDM works in synchronized mode. Both ends, i.e. Multiplexer and De-
multiplexer are timely synchronized and both switch to next channel
simultaneously
• When channel A transmits its frame at one end,the De-multiplexer
provides media to channel A on the other end.As soon as the channel
A’s time slot expires, this side switches to channel B. On the other
end, the De-multiplexer works in a synchronized manner and provides
media to channel B. Signals from different channels travel the path in
this way
Wavelength Division Multiplexing

• Light has different wavelength (colors). In fiber optic mode, multiple

optical carrier signals are multiplexed into an optical fiber by using
different wavelengths. This is an analog multiplexing technique and is
done conceptually in the same manner as FDM but uses light as
signals.

• Further, on each wavelength time division multiplexing can be

incorporated to accommodate more data signals
Code Division Multiplexing
• Multiple data signals can be transmitted over a single frequency by
using Code Division Multiplexing. FDM divides the frequency in
smaller channels but CDM allows its users to full bandwidth and
transmit signals all the time using a unique code.
• Each station is assigned with a unique code, called chip. Signals travel
with these codes independently, inside the whole bandwidth.The
receiver knows in advance the chip code signal it has to receive
Spread Spectrum Modulation

• A collective class of signaling techniques are employed before

transmitting a signal to provide a secure communication, known as
the Spread Spectrum Modulation. The main advantage of spread
spectrum communication technique is to prevent “interference”
whether it is intentional or unintentional.
• The signals modulated with these techniques are hard to interfere
and cannot be jammed. An intruder with no official access is never
allowed to crack them. Hence, these techniques are used for military
purposes. These spread spectrum signals transmit at low power
density and has a wide spread of signals.
• The increasing demand for wireless communications has problems
due to limited spectrum efficiency and multipath propagation. The
use of spread spectrum communication has simplified these
problems. In the spread spectrum, signals from different sources are
combined to fit into larger bandwidth.
• Narrow-band and Spread-spectrum Signals
• Both the Narrow band and Spread spectrum signals can be
understood easily by observing their frequency spectrum as shown in
the following figures
Narrow-band Signals

• The Narrow-band signals have the signal strength concentrated as

shown in the following frequency spectrum figure.
• Following are some of its features −
• Band of signals occupy a narrow range of frequencies.
• Power density is high.
• Spread of energy is low and concentrated.
• Though the features are good, these signals are prone to interference.
Spread Spectrum Signals

• The spread spectrum signals have the signal strength distributed as

shown in the following frequency spectrum figure.
• Following are some of its features −
• Band of signals occupy a wide range of frequencies.
• Power density is very low.
• Energy is wide spread.
Advantages of Spread Spectrum

• Following are the advantages of spread spectrum −

• Better output with data integrity
• Reduced effect of multipath fading
• Better security
• Reduction in noise
• Difficult to jam the signals
Types of spread spectrum

Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum FHSS

•Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum DSSS
Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum
FHSS

This is frequency hopping technique, where the users are made to change the frequencies of
usage, from one to another in a specified time interval, hence called as frequency hopping.
For example, a frequency was allotted to sender 1 for a particular period of time.
Now, after a while, sender 1 hops to the other frequency and sender 2 uses the first frequency,
which was previously used by sender 1. This is called as frequency reuse.
The frequencies of the data are hopped from one to another in order to provide a secure
transmission.
The amount of time spent on each frequency hop is called as Dwell time.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
DSSS/CDMA

Whenever a user wants to send data using this DSSS technique, each and every bit of the user
data is multiplied by a secret code, called as chipping code.
This chipping code is nothing but the spreading code which is multiplied with the
original message and transmitted. The receiver uses the same code to retrieve the original message.
Types of Transmission Media
• 1. Guided Media: It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded
transmission media. Signals being transmitted are directed and
confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:
• High Speed
• Secure
• Used for comparatively shorter distances
Twisted Pair Cable
• In this type of transmission media, two insulated conductors of a single
circuit are twisted together to improve electromagnetic compatibility.
These are the most widely used transmission medium cables. These are
packed together in protective sheaths. They reduce electromagnetic
radiation from pairs and crosstalk between the neighboring pair. Overall, it
improves the rejection of external electromagnetic interference. These are
further subdivided into unshielded and shielded twisted pair cables.
• Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable(UTP): These consist of two insulated
copper wires that are coiled around one another. These types of
transmission media block interference without depending on any physical
shield. The unshielded twisted pair are very affordable and are simple to
set up. These provide a high-speed link.
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): This twisted cable consisted of a foil shield to
block external interference. The insulation within these types of the
twisted cable allow greater data transmission rate. These are used in fast-
data-rate Ethernet and in data and voice channels of telephone lines
Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable(UTP):
• Advantages:
• ⇢ Least expensive
• ⇢ Easy to install
• ⇢ High-speed capacity
• Disadvantages:
• ⇢ Susceptible to external interference
• ⇢ Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
• ⇢ Short distance transmission due to attenuation
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
• Advantages:
• ⇢ Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
• ⇢ Eliminates crosstalk
• ⇢ Comparatively faster
• Disadvantages:
• ⇢ Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
• ⇢ More expensive
• ⇢ Bulky
Optical Fibre Cable

• Also known as fiber optic cable, these are thin strands of glass that
guide light along their length. These contain multiple optical fibers
and are very often used for long-distance communications. Compared
to other materials, these cables can carry huge amounts of data and
run for miles without using signal repeaters. Due to lesser
requirements, they have less maintenance costs and it improves the
reliability of the communication system. These can be unidirectional
as well as bidirectional in nature.
• Main element of Fiber Optics
• Core: It is the central tube of very thin size made of optically
transparent medium and carries the light transmitter to receiver
• Cladding: It is outer optical material surrounding the core and
cladding helps to keep the light within the core throughout the
phenomena of total internal reflection.
• Buffer Coating: It is a plastic coating that protects the fiber made of
silicon rubber.
• Advantages:
• Increased capacity and bandwidth
• Lightweight
• Less signal attenuation
• Disadvantages:
• Difficult to install and maintain
• High cost
• Fragile
Coaxial cable(coax)
• These guided transmission media contain an insulation layer that
transmits information in baseband mode and broadband mode.
Coaxial cables are made of two parallel conductors that are separately
insulated. Such cables carry high frequency electrical signals without
any big loss. The inner conductor is used for data
transmission.insulator prevents the interference of electrical signal.
Advantages:
•High Bandwidth
•Better noise Immunity
•Easy to install and expand
•Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
•Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
Unguided Transmission Media

• Also known as unbounded or wireless media, they help in

transmitting electromagnetic signals without using a physical
medium. Here, air is the medium. There is no physical connectivity
between transmitter and receiver. These types of transmission media
are used for longer distances however they are less secure than
guided media. There are three main types of wireless transmission
media
Radio Waves

• Radio waves are transmitted in every direction throughout free space.

Since these are omnidirectional, sent waves can be received by any
antenna.
• These waves are useful when the data is to multicasted from one
sender to multiple receivers. Radio waves can cover large areas and
even penetrate obstacles such as buildings and walls.
• The frequency of these waves ranges between 3 kHz to 1GHz. Due to
its omnidirectional nature, issues such as interference might arise
when another signal with the same bandwidth or frequency is sent.
Infrared

• These waves are useful for only very short distance communication.
Unlike radio waves, they do not have the ability to penetrate barriers.
Their range varies between 300GHz – 400THz.(thz=1012hz )
• Since they have larger bandwidth, the data rate is very high for
infrared waves. These have less interference and are more secure.
• ex-remote
Microwaves

• For these waves, it is important for the transmitter and receiver

antenna to be aligned. This is why it is known as line-of-sight
transmission. Due to this, they are suitable for shorter distances.
• They comprise of electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging
between 1-400 GHz. Microwaves provide bandwidth between the
range of 1 to 10 Mbps. Distance covered by the signal is proportional
to the height of the antenna.
• For travelling to longer distances, the height of the tower should be
increased.
Circuit Switching in Computer Network

•Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path

between sender and receiver.
•In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the
dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
•Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
•A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
•In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice, video,
a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the acknowledgment
to ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path
transfers the data.
•Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice transmission.
•Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology
Datagram switching :
• Datagram packet switching is a packet switching method that treats
each packet, or datagram, as a separate entity.
• Each packet is routed via the network on its own. It is a service that
does not require a connection. Because there is no specific channel
for a connection session, there is no need to reserve resources.
• As a result, packets have a header with all the destination’s
information. The intermediate nodes assess a packet’s header and
select an appropriate link to a different node closer to the
destination.
• Advantages of Datagram Switching:
• Scalability: Datagram switching is highly scalable and can handle large
amounts of traffic on a network.
• Flexibility: Datagram switching is flexible and can support variable packet
sizes and data rates.
• Simple routing: Datagram switching does not require a pre-established
path for each packet, allowing packets to be routed dynamically.
• Lower latency: Datagram switching typically has lower latency than virtual
circuit switching, as packets are sent immediately without any delay for
setup.
• Disadvantages of Datagram Switching:
• Higher error rates: Datagram switching is more susceptible to errors
than virtual circuit switching, as there is no guaranteed delivery or
error correction.
• Lack of QoS: Datagram switching does not provide any Quality of
Service guarantees, meaning that different types of traffic may be
treated equally.
• Increased network congestion: Without a pre-established path for
each packet, datagram switching can lead to increased network
congestion and potential delays.
Virtual Circuit :
• Virtual packet switching approach in which a path is built between the
source and the final destination through which all packets are routed
throughout a transmisssion is known as virtual circuit switching.
• Because the connection looks to the user to be an infatuated physical
circuit, this path is referred to as a virtual circuit. Other communications,
on the other hand, may be sharing parts of the same path.
• Before the data transmission can commence, the source and destination
must agree on a virtual circuit path. For the decision, all intermediary
nodes between the two places add a routing entry to their routing
database.
• Additional parameters, like the utmost packet size, also are exchanged
between the source and therefore the destination during call setup. The
virtual circuit is cleared after the info transfer is completed
Advantages of Virtual Circuit Switching:
• Guaranteed delivery: Virtual circuit switching provides guaranteed
delivery of packets, reducing the likelihood of lost or corrupted data.
• Lower error rates: Virtual circuit switching typically has lower error
rates than datagram switching due to its error correction
mechanisms.
• QoS support: Virtual circuit switching supports Quality of Service
guarantees, allowing for prioritization of different types of traffic.
• Efficient use of bandwidth: Virtual circuit switching establishes a pre-
determined path for each packet, resulting in efficient use of
bandwidth.
Disadvantages of Virtual Circuit Switching:

• Limited scalability: Virtual circuit switching is less scalable than

datagram switching and may not be suitable for large networks.
• Increased setup time: Virtual circuit switching requires a setup time
for each connection, which can lead to increased latency and delay.
• Fixed data rates: Virtual circuit switching typically supports fixed data
rates, which may not be suitable for applications that require variable
packet sizes or data rates
 Datagram Switching Virtual Circuit
Virtual circuits are connection-oriented, which means
It is connection less service. There is no need for
that there is a reservation of resources like buffers,
reservation of resources as there is no dedicated path
bandwidth, etc. for the time during which the new
for a connection session.
setup VC is going to be used by a data transfer session.
The first sent packet reserves resources at each server
All packets are free to use any available path. As a
along the path. Subsequent packets will follow the
result, intermediate routers calculate routes on the go
same path as the first sent packet for the connection
due to dynamically changing routing tables on routers.
time.
Data packets reach the destination in random order,
Packets reach in order to the destination as data
which means they need not reach in the order in
follows the same path.
which they were sent out.
Every packet is free to choose any path, and hence all
All the packets follow the same path and hence a
the packets must be associated with a header
global header is required only for the first packet of
containing information about the source and the
connection and other packets will not require it.
upper layer data.
Datagram networks are not as reliable as Virtual
Virtual Circuits are highly reliable.
Circuits.
Efficiency high, delay more Efficiency low and delay less
What are Switches in Computer Network?
• Switches are networking devices operating at layer 2 or a data link
layer of the OSI model. They connect devices in a network and use
packet switching to send, receive or forward data packets or data
frames over the network.
• A switch has many ports, to which computers are plugged in. When a
data frame arrives at any port of a network switch, it examines the
destination address, performs necessary checks and sends the frame
to the corresponding device(s). It supports unicast, multicast as well
as broadcast communications
Features of Network Switches
• It operates in Data Link Layer in OSI Model.
• It performs error checking before forwarding data.
• It transfers the data only to the device that has been addressed.
• It operates in full duplex mode.
• It allocates each LAN segment a limited bandwidth.
• It uses Unicast (one-to-one), multicast (one-to-many), and broadcast
(one-to-all) transmission modes.
• Packet Switching techniques are used to transfer data packets from
source to destination.
• Switches have a more significant number of ports.
How Does a Network Switch Works?

• When the source wants to send the data packet to the destination,
the packet first enters the switch and the switch reads its header and
finds the MAC address of the destination to identify the device then it
sends the packet out through the appropriate ports that lead to the
destination devices.
• Switch establishes a temporary connection between the source and
destination for communication and terminates the connection once
the conversation is done. Also, it offers full bandwidth to network
traffic going to and from a device simultaneously to reduce collision
STRUCTURE OF A SWITCH
• We use switches in circuit-switched and packet switched networks. In
this section, we discuss the structures of the switches used in each
type of network.
• Structure of Circuit Switches
Structure of Circuit Switches
• Circuit switches are a form of telecom switch that creates a dedicated
circuit between two endpoints for the duration of a communication
session. This dedicated circuit ensures that the connection remains
constant and uninterrupted throughout the entire conversation or
data transfer.
• Switching refers to the transmission of data along channels in order to
transmit it from the originator to the receiver. Circuit switching is a
switching process that transmits data from source to destination
through a specific communication channel. During the connection,
the path and resources for the circuit are reserved
Circuit Switching Network Phases
• Phase 1: Circuit Establishment
• In this phase, a dedicated circuit is established between the source and the
destination through different intermediate switches.
• Phase 2: Data Transfer
• Now in this phase when the circuit is connected, the sender starts to send
the data to the receiver.
• Phase 3: Termination
• When the data is completely transferred between the sender and receiver
the connection is terminated. Then all the nodes involved in the
connection are informed to release the resources that were reserved for
the circuit.
Structure of Circuit Switches

• Circuit switching today can use either of two technologies: the space-
division switch or the time-division switch.

• Space-Division Switch
• In space-division switching, the paths in the circuit are separated from one
another spatially(structurally).
• This technology was originally designed for use in analog networks but is
used currently in both analog and digital networks.
• Time-Division Switch
• Time-division switching uses time-division multiplexing (TDM) inside a
switch. The most popular technology is called the time-slot interchange
(TSI)
Crossbar Switch
• A crossbar switch connects n inputs to m outputs in a grid, using electronic
transistors at each crosspoint as shown in figure 5 below.
• The main problem with this design is that it needs too many crosspoints.To
connect n inputs to m outputs using a crossbar switch it requires n x m
crosspoints.
• Now if we take an example connecting 1000 inputs
to 1000 outputs requires a switch with 1,000,000
crosspoints.A crossbar with this number of
crosspoints is impossible.
• Such a switch is also inefficient because statistics
show that,in practice, fewer than 25 percent of the
crosspoints are in use at any given time. The rest
are idle.
• In this fig .Crossbar Switch with three inputs and four outputs
Multistage Switch
• The solution to the limitations of the crossbar switch is the multistage switch,
which combines crossbar switches in different (normally three) stages, as shown
in Figure 6 below.
• In a single crossbar switch, only one row or column (one path) is active for any
connection. So we need N x N crosspoints. If we can allow multiple paths inside
the switch, we can decrease the number of crosspoints.
• Each crosspoint in the middle stage can be accessed by multiple crosspoints in
the first or third stage.
Introduction to Telephone Network
• Telephone Network is used to provide voice communication. Telephone
Network uses Circuit Switching. Originally, the entire network was referred
to as a plain old telephone system (POTS) which uses analog signals. With
the advancement of technology, i.e. in the computer era, there comes a
feature to carry data in addition to voice. Today’s network is both
analogous and digital.
• Major Components of Telephone Network: There are three major
components of the telephone network:
• Local loops
• Trunks
• Switching Offices
• There are various levels of switching offices such as end offices, tandem
offices, and regional offices. The entire telephone network is as shown in
the following figure:
Local Loops:

• Local Loops are the twisted pair cables that are used to connect a
subscriber telephone to the nearest end office or local central office.
For voice purposes, its bandwidth is 4000 Hz. It is very interesting to
examine the telephone number that is associated with each local
loop. The office is defined by the first three digits and the local loop
number is defined by the next four digits.
• Trunks: It is a type of transmission medium used to handle the
communication between offices. Through multiplexing, trunks can
handle hundreds or thousands of connections. Mainly transmission is
performed through optical fibers or satellite links.
• Switching Offices: As there is a permanent physical link between any
two subscribers. To avoid this, the telephone company uses switches
that are located in switching offices. A switch is able to connect
various loops or trunks and allows a connection between different
subscribes
• Advantages of Telephone Network:
• It is a circuit-switched network.
• There is no transmission delay as any receiver can be selected.
• It is cheap in price because it is a widely spread network.
• Disadvantages of Telephone Network:
• It requires a large time for connection.
• It has a low transmission speed
• Applications of Telephone Network:
• It helps to connect people.
• It is used by business organizations to advertise their products.
• It is also used around the world.
Dial-up Modems:
• Traditional telephone lines can carry frequencies between 300 and
3300 Hz, giving them a bandwidth of 3000 Hz. All this range is used
for transmitting voice, where a great deal of interference and
distortion can be accepted without loss of intelligibility
• The term modem is a composite word that refers to the two
functional entities that make up the device: a signal modulator and a
signal demodulator. A modulator creates a band pass analog signal
from binary data. A demodulator recovers the binary data from the
modulated signal.
• Modulation-process of converting an analog to digital signal
• Demodulation-process of converting digital to analog signal
Modem stands for modulator/demodulator.
Digital Subscriber Line
• The Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), originally, a digital subscriber loop
is a communication medium, which is used to transfer the internet
through copper wire telecommunication lines. Along with cable
internet, DSL is one of the most popular ways ISPs provide broadband
internet access.
• Properties of DSL
• Its aim is to maintain the high speed of the data being transferred.
• If we ask how we going to achieve such a thing i.e., both telephone
and internet facilities, then the answer is by using DSL.
• Types of DSL
• Symmetric DSL
• SDSL, splits the upstream and downstream frequencies evenly, providing
equal speeds to both uploading and downloading data transfer. This
connection may provide 2 Mbps upstream and downstream.it is mostly
preferred by small organizations.
• Asymmetric DSL
• ADSL, provides a wider frequency range for downstream transfers, which
offers several times faster downstream speeds. an ADSL connection may
offer 20 Mbps downstream and 1.5 Mbps upstream, it is because most
users download more data than they upload
Benefits
• No Additional Wiring – A DSL connection makes use of your existing telephone wiring, so you will not have
to pay for expensive upgrades to your phone system.
• Cost-Effective – DSL internet is a very cost-effective method and is best in connectivity
• Availability of DSL modems by the service providers.
• Users can use both telephone lines and the internet at the same time. And it is because the voice and digital
signals are transferred in different frequencies.
• Users can choose between different connection speeds and pricing from various providers.
• High-speed: DSL provides high-speed internet access, allowing users to stream, download, and upload large
amounts of data quickly.
• Simultaneous use: DSL allows users to make voice calls and use the internet at the same time, making it a
convenient option for households with multiple users who need to use the internet and the telephone at the
same time.
• Reliable: DSL is a stable and reliable technology that provides consistent performance, making it a
dependable option for internet access.
• No data caps: Unlike some other internet technologies, DSL doesn’t have data caps, allowing users to
stream, download, and upload as much data as they need without worrying about additional charges or
throttled speeds.
• Easy setup: DSL is easy to set up and doesn’t require any special equipment, making it a straightforward
option for people who are new to the internet or need to get online quickly.
• Supports multiple devices: DSL can support multiple devices simultaneously, making it an ideal option for
households with multiple users and devices
Cable TV Networks

• Cable television networks are television channels that are delivered to

viewers through cable television systems, as opposed to broadcast
television, satellite television, or the internet. Some examples of
popular cable TV networks in the United States include ESPN, TNT,
and HBO. Cable networks can also be divided into categories, such as
news networks (CNN, Fox News), sports networks (ESPN, NBC Sports),
movie networks (HBO, Showtime), and lifestyle networks (Food
Network, HGTV).
• Cable Network operate by subscription where viewer pays to the
operator to get access to the channels
Advantages of Cable TV Network
• There are several advantages of cable TV networks, including −
• Wider variety of programming − Cable TV networks offer a much wider variety of
programming than traditional broadcast networks, including a wide range of
niche channels catering to specific interests.
• Better picture and sound quality − Cable networks transmit their signals digitally,
which results in a clearer and more stable picture and sound quality than
traditional analog broadcasts.
• More control over programming − Cable networks allow viewers to choose which
channels they want to subscribe to, and many also offer video on demand, pay-
per-view, and other interactive services, giving viewers more control over what
they watch.
• Better reception − Cable networks are less susceptible to interference and
reception problems caused by terrain or other obstacles than traditional over-
the-air broadcasts.
• More convenient recording options − Many cable and satellite TV providers offer
digital video recorder (DVR) services, which allow users to record shows and
movies for later viewing, pause live TV, and even skip commercials.
• Variety of plans and packages to suit different budgets and interest
Disadvantages of Cable TV Network
• There are several disadvantages of cable TV networks, including −
• High cost − Cable TV networks can be expensive, especially when you subscribe to multiple
channels or premium networks. Prices vary depending on the provider and the package you
choose, but cable TV can be a significant monthly expense.
• Limited coverage − Cable TV networks are only available in certain geographic areas, and even
within those areas, some buildings or homes may not be able to receive a signal.
• Limited availability of certain channels − Some channels may not be available in certain areas, or
may only be available as part of a higher-priced package.
• Contracts − Many cable TV providers require customers to sign long-term contracts, which can be
difficult to get out of if you decide to cancel service.
• Hidden Fees − Some providers charge extra fees for equipment, installation, and other services,
which can significantly increase the overall cost of the subscription.
• Regional Sports Surcharges − Some providers charge extra fees for regional sports networks that
are specific to your area, which can add a significant amount to the overall cost of your
subscription.
• Lack of flexibility − Once you have subscribed to a cable package, you are typically only able to
view the channels included in that package, and can't pick-and-choose channels you want.
• Dependency on the cable infrastructure and limited availability during power cuts.
• Potential for price increases − Cable TV providers often raise prices for their services, especially
when contracts are up for renewal, so your bill may be higher than you expect over time
Cable TV for Data Transfer

• In this era, cable companies are competing with telephone companies for
residential customers who want high-speed data transfer. To provide high-
speed data transfer, the use of a cable TV network is used. To understand
this technology following points needs to be considered:
• Bandwidth:
• As we have also studied in the HFC(Hybrid fiber coaxial) system, that it uses
the fiber mode, but in this, the coaxial cable is still used for the fiber node
to the subscriber premises. The bandwidth range of coaxial cable is 5 to
750 MHz. To provide internet access, the cable company divided this
bandwidth into three bands i.e. video band, downstream, and upstream .
• Data Rate: As there are 6 bits , Out of these 6 bits, one is used for
checking of forwarding error and leaves the other 5 bits of data per
baud. There is a standard that specifies 1hz for each baud. So, by
calculation, we can say that downstream data can be received at
30Mbps. However, the cable modem that is connected to the
computer through a 10 Base-T cable limits the data rate to only
10Mbps
• Sharing
• Upstream and Downstream bands, both are shared by the
subscribers.
• Upstream Sharing: The bandwidth of upstream data is only 37 MHz,
so only 6-MHz channels are available in the upstream direction. The
timesharing method is used to share the 6 channels over subscribers.
• Downstream Sharing: The downstream band has 33 channels of
6MHz, The number of subscribers is about 33. Here the multicasting
solution is adopted to share each channel between the group of
subscribers
• Upstream Communication: The following is the very simplified version of
the protocol that is defined by DOCSIS for upstream communication. The
following are the steps that are followed by CM:
• CM checks for a specific packet periodically sent by the CMTS. The packet
itself asks any new CM to announce on a specific upstream channel.
• The CMTS sends a packet to CM, by defining its upstream and downstream.
• The process called ranging is started by CM which determines the distance
between CM and CMTS for the synchronization between CM and CMTS.
• The CM sends a packet to the ISP, for accessing the internet address.
• For the establishment of security parameters, CM and CMTS exchange
packets between them.
• Then CM sends its unique identifier to CMTS.
• In the allocated upstream channel, the upstream communication starts.
• Downstream Communication: The communication in the downstream
channel is much simpler. There is only one sender and CMTS send the
packet with the address of the receiving CM using the allocated
downstream channel.
• Advantages of Cable TV:
• Cable TV is stable in its service.
• It is fairly inexpensive.
• Disadvantages of Cable TV:
• Due to the availability of a single provider, it creates a monopoly.
• It will lead to less privacy when our TV cable is connected to the internet