CHAPTER THREE

THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK
3.1. INTRODUCTION TO FOUNDATION OF THE BUILDING
Betore foundation work starts, you need to carry out site investigation, site
clearance, soil test, settings out, carthwork, and excavation. During the process
of realizing a structure it is necessary to do the following.
a) Site investigation: This will help you to know the nature of the site you are to
work.
b) Soil taste: Soil investigation is in a term covering every aspect of the soil
under investigation especially the sub soil beneath the soil under investigation
and could be part of preliminary work before the site work commends.
Earth work consist of carying out some investigation on the site on which the
building is to be realized so as to know the nature of the soil in order to decide
the type of foundation to be used.
Removal of the vegetable soil from the construction site and also the excavation
of trenches of the building project and if possible protect the site of the trench
in
case of deep trenches to avoid the collapse of the site of the trenches.
In case the water underneath the excavation of the project deviating system are
used.
3.1.2. PURPOSE OF SOIL INVESTIGATION
1) To determine an adequate and economic foundation design.
process
2) To determine the difficulties which may arise during the construction

3.2.1 Foundation of a Building (TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS)

Generally, procedures for the construction of a foundation starts with a
decision on its depth, width, length and marking layout for excavation and
centerlines of foundation. Foundation is the part of the structure below the
plinth level in direct contact with the soil and transmit load to the
superstructure
to the ground.
DEFINITION: A foundation is the lowest part of a building or structure which
is designed to distribute the weight of the new building evenly and provides a
firm footing. Foundation provides the structure stability from the ground to
distribute the weight of the structure over a large area in order to avoid
overloading of the underlying soil.
3.3 GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF A FOUNDATION
Following are the main functions of foundations;
To transmit and distribute the total load of the structure to a larger area of
underlying support.
• To prevent differential settlement of the structures.
• To provide stability to the structure
Generally, a foundations cannot stand or carry the load of a building without a
footing.
3.3.1 Footings:
It's a part of a foundation which helps to transmit the load of the structure to
soil with proper distribution of the loads and it is made up of concrete and
reinforced cement
The foundation depends on the soil types and its bearing capacity. One can
choose the type of foundation or footing type by determining;

1. Total dead load and live load of a structure and,

2. Bearing capacity of the soil.
3.4 TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
The type of foundation decides how strong the build-up is, right in sense. The
primary purpose of the foundation is to make the structure stable and resist the
structure from vertical and lateral forces. There are basically two major types of
foundations namely; shallow foundation and deep foundation.
3.4.1 SHALLOW FOUNDATION
Shallow foundation are usually located not more than 6 feet below the
lowest finished floor. A shallow foundation system are generally used
when;
a) The soil close to the ground surface has sufficient bearing capacity.
b) The underlying weaker strata do not result in undue settlement
The depth of this type of foundation is less and is economical to build
lightweight structures. It depends on the ratio of the depth and width of the
foundation of the structure. In shallow foundation, if the width of the foundation
is greater than the depth of the foundation is called the shallow foundation.
Alternatively if the depth to width ratio of the foundation is less than equal to
2.
Although the foundation is shallow it equally has its various types which are;
1) ISOLATED FO0TING: It's the most commonly used footing,
individual laid down and economical to be used. It is use where some
storey buildings are is in good condition and depends on the factored load
of the column and safe bearing capacity of the soil.
If the factored load on the column is less, then this footing is good for the
structure. It is also used for two to three storey buildings. Generally
foundations for two to three storeys buildings takes 1.5m -2m. There are
different types of isolated footings;

a) Pad foundation:
b) Stepped foundation:
c) Sloped foundation:
d) Isolated beam and slap
2) COMBINED FOOTING: If 2-3 columns connected collectively with
one single footing is called combined footing. It provided where the
distance between the 2 columns is small. The shape of the combined
footing is in a rectangular form. It's the formation of 2 isolated footings
together.
3) WALL OR STRIP FOOTING: It's generally used as a load-bearing
walls. The width of the footing is generally 2-3 times the thickness of the
wall. This type of footing distribute all structure load into the soil. This
broader base of the footing area provides more stability to the structure.
For the construction of this footing, different materials like bricks, stones,
are used. It can also be used for retaining wall. They are continuous slab
strip along the length of the wall.
4) CANTILEVER OR STRAP FOOTNG: It's similar to the combined
footing. In this footing, the exterior footing connected with strap beam to
the interior footing. In strap footing, the edge of the footing should not
cross the property line.
5) RAFT OR MAT FOOTING: It's used where the bearing capacity of the
soil is very low, base required in structure, vertical load on the column
are high and column are closed to each other. It covers the entire area of
the structure to support heavy column and wall loads.
If the area of the foundation exceeds the total area of the building, we
have to provide mat or raft foundation to make the structure stable

3.4.2 Advantages of Shallow Foundation;

Foundations with shallow depths are beneficial for some aspects. Some
advantages of shallow foundations is listed below.
* Shallow foundations is convenient for foundations having depth is equal
or less than the foundation width.
$ It is used if bearing capacity of soils high at shallow depth.
* For compressive soils, it help to reduce settlement.
No piling is required. So it reduces a great cost.
3 It requires less excavation hence reduce labour cost of work.
3 Construction of shallow foundations is simple as the depth involved in
placing the foundation is less.
* Equipment required for construction of shallow foundation are simple
and also less costly.
3.4.3 Disadvantages of Shallow Foundation;
This foundations cannot be used everywhere. The major dis advantages of
shallow foundations are given below.
1. If weight of structure is high and load of the structure is distributed
unequally
2. The bearing capacity of top surface soil is less.
3. If sub-soil water level is high and it is uneconomical to pump out the
water fom the hole or canal.
4. If there is a chance of scouring as the structure is near sea or river
shallow foundation cannot be used.
Equally, appart of the shallow foundation there's equally another mean type of
foundation known as deep foundation
3.5 DEEP FOUNDATION

This type of foundation is used where hard strata are not available within the
limit of shallow foundation, It helps to prevent the structure from the uplift.
Shallow foundation may not be economical or even possible when the soil
bearing capacity near the surface is too low. In these case deep foundations are
used to transfer loads to a stronger layer which may be located at a significant
depth below the ground surface. The load is transferred through skin friction
and end bearing.
If the width of the foundation is snmaller than the depth of the foundation, it's a
called a Deep foundation.
Altematively, if the depth to width ratio of the foundation is greater than two is
equally a deep foundation. Basically, there are the following types of deep
foundation used in the construction of the structure. These types of foundations
includes;
1) PILE FOUNDATION: It's a type of deep foundation used where hard
strata are available below the limit of the shallow foundation from the
ground surface. Pile foundations are relatively long and slender members
constructed by driving preformed units to the desired founding level, or by
drilling-in tubes to the required depth. The tubes being filled with concrete
before or during withdrawal or by drilling unlined or partly lined
boreholes which are then filled with concrete. Pile foundation have the
following uses;
✔ Piles are used to bear the vertical compressive load.
✔ Vertical piles are used to carry the vertical compressive load of
superstructures such as bridges and buildings.
✔ Piles are used for the foundation of a building to hold the load from
the superstructure.
✔ Piles are also used to resist bending as well as horizontal forces.

✓ Use of pile to resist lateral loads in bridges and retaining wall structures.
2) CAISSONS FOUNDATION: Caissons are hallow substructures
designed to be constructed on or near the surface and then sunk as a
single unit to their required level. It's generally used for bearing the very
heavy loads of the structures. It's a cast in-situ foundation and also
available as pre-cast materials. This foundation is more suitable for
underwater foundations. Also this foundation should be spread below or
above the river bottom or the ocean floor to realize proper stability.
3) BUOYANCY RAFTS (Hollow Box Foundations): Buoyancy raft are
hollow substructures designed to provide a buoyant or semi-buoyant
substructure beneath which the net loading on the soil is reduced to the
desired low intensity. Buoyancy rafts can be designed to be sunk as
caissons, they can also be constructed in place in open exxcavations. This
foundation is more environment friendly than pile foundation within the
areas very weak soils for large depths.
4) DRILLED SHAFT FOUNDATION: Shaft foundation are constructed
with deep excavations supported by lining constructed in place and
subsequently filled with concrete or other pre-fabricated load-bearing
unit. It's largely used to help buildings with axial and lateral loads by
digging cylindrical shafts into the ground and filling them with concrete.
5) BASEMENT FOUNDATION: These are hollow substructures
designed to provide working or storage space below ground level. The
structural design is governed by their functional requirements rather than
from considerations of the most efficient methods of resisting external
earth and hydrostatic pressures. They are constructed in place opecn
ex cavations. Daylight basement homes are usually taller than standard
basement homes include more viable dwelling areas in the deep
foundation.

3.5.1 ADVANTAGES OF DEEP FOUNDATION:

> Pile can be prefabricated of-site which allows efficient installation on the
site.
> The induced piles displace and compact the soil which will increase the
bearing capacity of the pile.
> Piles will keep the facility safe and strong for many years.
> Increase overall productivity.
>A pile quickly damaged by driving through stoncs and boulders.
> Piles can be attracted by saltwater marine bits.
> A stack cannot be above ground level.
3.5.2 DISADVANTAGES OF DEEP FOUNDATION:
> Pile can undergo corrosion.
> Daily inspection is required.
> Deep foundation are too expensive.
Skilled labor is required to fix the piles.
3.53 Deep foundation can be selected in the following situations;
a) The hard layer of soil at greater depth.
b) Loading from the structure is concentrated on heavy soils.
c) Offshore construction in marshy areas.
d) Where a structure is susceptible to uneven settlements.
During the process of realizing a structure, there are some factor affecting the
construction of a foundation. These factors are;
3.6 FACTORS AFFECTING FOUNDATION
> Accessibility
> Condition of subsurface

>The magnitude of load to be transferred

> The proximity of the other structure
> Water table depth.
3.7 PURPOSE OFAFOUNDTION:
provides the structure's stability from the ground and to distribute the
weights of the structure over a large area in other to avoid over loading the
underlying soil (possibly causing uncqual settlement).
3.8 PARTS OF A FOUNDATION:
•A foundation wall of either poured concrete or concrete masonry units
(CMUs)
• A concrete floor slab
3.9 TYPES OFMATERIALS USED:
Formwork
Spear
Reinforcement
Concrete
3.10 SOIL SUITABLE FOR FOUNDATION
Chalk soils can be prone to erosion so be wary of the possible presence of
hollows and curves. Dry, compact gravel or gravel and sand sub soils are
usually adequate for strip foundations. Generally, a ground depth of 700mm is
acceptable as long as the ground has adequate bearing capacity.
3.11 FAILURE OF A FOUNDATION
It is when a foundation is no longer able to support te full weight of soil and
excessive settlement. In such cases the building may sink or may topple over all
together due to inadequate bearing capacity.

3.12 TYPES OF FAJLURE IN FOUNDATION

Types of foundation failure under loads are:
Punching shear failure of foundation
One-way shear failure of foundation
• Flexure failure of foundation
3.13 REASONS FOR FOUNDATION FAILURE
Generally foundation failure, refer to both the failure of structural elements of
the foundation such as footings or piles, and the failure of the soil. The first
type
of failure occurs as a result of over loading on the foundation. Whereas the later
results are due to negligence when choosing the right location for foundation or
loss of bearing strength because of adjacent work. Foundation failure resulting
from the collapse of the footing is a rare occurrence. And the reasons include:
> Load transfer failure
> Undermining safe support
> Lateral movement
> Heave
> Drag down
> Design error
> Construction error
> Change in water level
> Vibration effects
3.14 CAUSES OF FOUNDATION FAILURE
Evaporation .Hot and dry condition causes the soil to pull away from the
foundation
Transpiration
Plumbing leaks

• Drainage
• Poor building site preparation
• Poor ground preparation
• Poor soil condition
3.15 REMEDIES TO PREVENT FOUNDATION FAILURE
* Depth of a foundation should be sufficiently deep so that rain water
cannot reach it.
* To maintain the water table at a definite level proper underground
drainage system be installed.
* If possible stone masonry should be used in foundation.
* Use ties or bonds at plinth level.
3.16 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF FOUNDATION
Before choosing any type of foundation, the following factors should be
taken in to consideration:
The nature of the soil
The type of structure
Economic factors ( cause of the foundation)
Time factors relative to the proposal duration
Construction problems

CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 PRACTICAL IMPLIMENTATION
This talks about the entire collective and the individual works which
were done where I carried out my internship.
4.2 COLLECTIVE WORKS
As a group on the site where we did are intenship, were assign to start work on
Setting out of a fence, The main activities were to elevate walls and to place
Tormwork for Columns and beams. While on site, we were orientated on how
the different activities are been done and the various personnel present on side.
The task we had to do was to take level on different part of the fence using a
tool call water level. This was to enable us to know the height at which the
beams will be places on columns. After this task was done, elevation of blocks
(15cmx 20cmx 40cm) was carried out on the beams, all this activities took us
the first week of the internship Program. The activities we had the following
week was still same activity.
4.2.1 ERECTION OF WALLS
This was carried out in the following ways
WALLS PLACEMENT OR TRACING
Instrument were been used to make sure that blocks are place correctly in order
to have a complete straight walls, some of this instrument used are a building
line tensioned on blocks which are plumbed at the ends of a wall using a plumb
bob and a spirit level.
• DETERMINATION (BOUNDARIES) OF WALL
Boundaries of wells where been respected were we had opening such as
opening for gate, and spacing between pillars.
METHOD OF WALL ERECTION

While on site, we placed mortar of 2cm thickness at every line of constrUction

that is from one level of layering to another with the help of a trowel and a
float,
the mixture of this mortar was done in the ratio 1:3 that is to say one bag of
Ceinent to three wheelbarrows of sand and water to a correct proportion. We then
laid blocks on the mortar with the guide of the tensioned lines set in place.
Closures were been made at joins openings such that we respect the interception
of Joins this lead us to cut blocks and place them at corners maintain true
Stretcher bondages, After blocks has being laid for a course, mortar were ie
Cnaik n other to bind the blocks to each other. This mortar joins between blocks
where place 2cm thick and so we did repeated operation in building the other
coUrse. Scaffolds were constructed as the height of the fence increase.
Respecting the rules of tenth course as elevation was going on.
A FORM WORK
Fomwork was constructed for pillars and beams; we were able to detemine the
height of the fence there by using the water level to make sure that it is
positioned correctly. Supports and braces were place to ensure the stability of
the form of the form extending them such that the openings. Nails of 80 were
used to joint boards to each other with the beams linking one column to the
other. This beam was maintaining it stability. This was respected at every level
of the fence we had an opening.
COLUMNS FORMWORK
We had two categories of pillars (20 x 40cm) and (15 x 15cm) all concreting
were done cast in-situ.
a) For pillars of 20 x 40cm, form works were been place on individual pillars
supported at every corners to insure stability and uniformness. This formwok
was place with the help of a plumb bob making sure that it has the same
alignment with the other form vertically and horizontally.

b) For pllars of 15x15cmform works was done in respect to the walll. Two
boards Were simply crammed vertically to the two sides of the walls using the
crams.
4.2.2 REINFORCEMENT
1. Pillar reinforcement
Most of our pillars were realized with steel rods of 10mm for the main
reinforcement and rods of diameter 8 where used for pillar in between two
walls, ómm rods were used as stirrups with cross section of 15cm x 25cm for
pillars of 20cm x 40cm while pillars of 15cm x 15cm, stirrups with cross
sections of 10cm x 10cm. this stirrups where formed in other to respect the
Concrete cover of 2.5cm thick they were places 20cm from each other attached
to the main reinforcing with binding wires using a tool call cutter. For the main
pillars, rods 6 were used with stirrups maintain their spacing of 20cm
throughout. The cross sectional area of 15cm x 25cm permit us to concrete
cover of 2.5cm thick at both side of the reinforcement. The pillars were
concreted with the dosage of 350kg/m'that is to say [Link] which means that 1
bag of cement mixed with one wheelbarrow of sand and two wheelbarrows of
gravel and water to a correct proportion.
4.3 INDIVIDUAL WORKS
I took part in most of the activities on site from setting out of the fence,
excavation, walls elevation and placing of formworks for Columns and pillars. I
put in much on the elevation of walls, reinforcement and formwork. I elevated
most walls, and concreting of beams and pillars. I also nail sonme of the
formworks for columns and beams.