5

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Switching circuits are also called logic circuits, gate circuits, and digital circuits. Switching algebra
is also called Boolean algebra. Hence the terms switching expressions and Boolean expressions
mean the same thing. Boolean algebra is a system of mathematical logic. It is an algebraic
system consisting of the set of elements (0,1), two binary operators called OR and AND and one
unary operator called NOT. It is the basic mathematical tool in the analysis and synthesis of
switching circuits. It is a way to express logic functions algebraically. Any complex logic
statement can be expressed by a Boolean function. The Boolean algebra is governed by certain
well-developed rules and laws. In the applications of Boolean algebra in this book, we use
capital letters to represent the variables. Any single variable, or a function of the variables can
have a value of either a 0 or a 1. The binary digits 0 and 1 are used to represent the two voltage
levels that occur within the digital logic circuit. In this book, we follow positive logic. Hence
binary 1 represents the higher of the two voltage levels (+ 5 V), and binary 0 represents the
lower of the two voltage levels (0 V). Ideally, no other voltages ever occur at the inputs or
outputs. In actual practice, however, any voltage above some level (2 V, for example) is treated
as logic 1 (TRUE, ON, HIGH) and any voltage below some level (0.8 V, for example) is treated
as logic 0 (FALSE, OFF, LOW).
Boolean algebra differs from both the ordinary algebra and the binary number system. In
Boolean algebra, A + A = A and A ◊ A = A, because the variable A has only a logical value. It
doesn’t have any numerical significance. In ordinary algebra, A + A = 2A and A ◊ A = A2,
because the variable A has a numerical value here. In Boolean algebra, 1 + 1 = 1, whereas in the
binary number system, 1 + 1 = 10, and in ordinary algebra, 1 + 1 = 2. There is nothing like
subtraction or division in Boolean algebra. Also, there are no negative or fractional numbers in
176
 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 177

Boolean algebra. In Boolean algebra, the multiplication and addition of the variables and functions
are also only logical. They actually represent logic operations. Logical multiplication is the
same as the AND operation, and logical addition is the same as the OR operation. There are only
two constants 0 and 1 within the Boolean system, whereas in ordinary algebra, you can have
any number of constants. A variable or function of variables in Boolean algebra can assume
only two values, either a 0 or a 1, whereas the variables or functions in ordinary algebra can
assume an infinite number of values.
Thus, in Boolean algebra
If A = 1, then A π 0
If A = 0, then A π 1.
Any functional relation in Boolean algebra can be proved by the method of perfect induction.
Perfect induction is a method of proof, whereby a functional relation is verified for every possible
combination of values that the variables may assume. This can be done by forming a truth table. A
truth table shows how a logic circuit responds to various combinations of logic levels at its inputs.

5.2 LOGIC OPERATIONS

The AND, OR and NOT are the three basic operations or functions that are performed in Boolean
algebra. In addition, there are some derived operations such as NAND, NOR, X-OR and X-NOR
that are also performed in Boolean algebra. These operations have been described in detail earlier
in the context of logic gates.

5.2.1 AND Operation

The AND operation in Boolean algebra is similar to multiplication in ordinary algebra. In fact, it is
logical multiplication as performed by the AND gate. It is represented by ◊, Ÿ, « (Intersection).

5.2.2 OR Operation
The OR operation in Boolean algebra is similar to addition in ordinary algebra. In fact, it is logical
addition as performed by the OR gate. It is represented by +, ⁄, » (Union).

5.2.3 NOT Operation

The NOT operation in Boolean algebra is nothing but complementation or inversion, that is, negation
as performed by the NOT gate. The NOT operation is indicated by a bar ‘–’ over the variable or
prime. Hierarchy among the operators is parenthesis first, then AND, and OR last.

5.2.4 NAND Operation

The NAND operation in Boolean algebra is equivalent to AND operation plus NOT operation, i.e.
it is the negation of the AND operation as performed by the NAND gate.

5.2.5 NOR Operation

The NOR operation in Boolean algebra is equivalent to OR operation plus NOT operation, i.e. it is
the negation of the OR operation as performed by the NOR gate.
178 FUNDAMENTALS OF DIGITAL CIRCUITS

5.2.6 X-OR and X-NOR Operations

The X-OR and X-NOR operations on variables A and B in Boolean algebra are denoted by
A ≈ B (= A B + AB) and A  B (= AB + A B), respectively. These operations have been described
in detail earlier.
The X-OR operation is also called the modulo-2 addition since it assigns to each pair of
elements its modulo-2 sum.

5.3 AXIOMS AND LAWS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Axioms or postulates of Boolean algebra are a set of logical expressions that we accept without
proof and upon which we can build a set of useful theorems. Actually, axioms are nothing more
than the definitions of the three basic logic operations that we have already discussed: AND, OR,
and INVERT. Each axiom can be interpreted as the outcome of an operation performed by a logic
gate.
AND operation OR operation NOT operation

Axiom 1: 0 ◊ 0 = 0 Axiom 5: 0 + 0 = 0 Axiom 9: 1 = 0

Axiom 2: 0 ◊ 1 = 0 Axiom 6: 0 + 1 = 1 Axiom 10: 0 = 1
Axiom 3: 1 ◊ 0 = 0 Axiom 7: 1 + 0 = 1
Axiom 4: 1 ◊ 1 = 1 Axiom 8: 1 + 1 = 1

5.3.1 Complementation Laws

The term complement simply means to invert, i.e. to change 0s to 1s and 1s to 0s. The five laws of
complementation are as follows:
Law 1: 0 =1
Law 2: 1 =0
Law 3: If A = 0, then A=1
Law 4: If A = 1, then A=0
Law 5: A = A (double complementation law)
Notice that the double complementation does not change the function.

5.3.2 AND Laws

The four AND laws are as follows:
Law 1: A ◊ 0 = 0 (Null law)
Law 2: A ◊ 1 = A (Identity law)
Law 3: A◊A=A
Law 4: A◊A=0
 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 179

5.3.3 OR Laws
The four OR laws are as follows:
Law 1: A + 0 = A (Null law)
Law 2: A + 1 = 1 (Identity law)
Law 3: A+A=A
Law 4: A+A=1

5.3.4 Commutative Laws

Commutative laws allow change in position of AND or OR variables. There are two commutative
laws.
Law 1: A+B=B+A
This law states that, A OR B is the same as B OR A, i.e. the order in which the variables are
ORed is immaterial. This means that it makes no difference which input of an OR gate is connected
to A and which to B. We give below the truth tables illustrating this law.

This law can be extended to any number of variables. For example,

A+B+C=B+C+A=C+A+B=B+A+C
Law 2: A◊B=B◊A
This law states that A AND B is the same as B AND A, i.e. the order in which the variables
are ANDed is immaterial. This means that it makes no difference which input of an AND gate is
connected to A and which to B. The truth tables given below illustrate this law.

This law can be extended to any number of variables. For example,

A◊B◊C=B◊C◊A=C◊A◊B=B◊A◊C

5.3.5 Associative Laws

The associative laws allow grouping of variables. There are two associative laws.
180 FUNDAMENTALS OF DIGITAL CIRCUITS

Law 1: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
A OR B ORed with C is the same as A ORed with B OR C. This law states that the way the
variables are grouped and ORed is immaterial. The truth tables given next illustrate this law.

This law can be extended to any number of variables. For example,

A + (B + C + D) = (A + B + C) + D = (A + B) + (C + D).
Law 2: (A ◊ B)C = A(B ◊ C)
A AND B ANDed with C is the same as A ANDed with B AND C. This law states that the way the
variables are grouped and ANDed is immaterial. See the truth tables below:

This law can be extended to any number of variables. For example,

A(BCD) = (ABC)D = (AB) (CD)

5.3.6 Distributive Laws

The distributive laws allow factoring or multiplying out of expressions. There are two distributive
laws.
Law 1: A(B + C) = AB + AC
This law states that ORing of several variables and ANDing the result with a single variable
is equivalent to ANDing that single variable with each of the several variables and then ORing the
products. The truth table given below illustrates this law.
 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 181

This law applies to single variables as well as combinations of variables. For example,
ABC(D + E) = ABCD + ABCE
AB(CD + EF) = ABCD + ABEF
The distributive property is often used in the reverse. That is, given AB + AC, we replace it
by A(B + C); and ABC + ABD by AB(C + D).
Law 2: A + BC = (A + B)(A + C)
This law states that ANDing of several variables and ORing the result with a single variable is
equivalent to ORing that single variable with each of the several variables and then ANDing the sums.
This can be proved algebraically as shown below. Also, the truth tables given next illustrate this law.
RHS = (A + B)(A + C)
= AA + AC + BA + BC
= A + AC + AB + BC
= A(1 + C + B) + BC
= A ◊ 1 + BC ( 1 + C + B = 1 + B = 1)
= A + BC
= LHS
182 FUNDAMENTALS OF DIGITAL CIRCUITS

5.3.7 Redundant Literal Rule (RLR)

Law 1: A + AB = A + B
This law states that ORing of a variable with the AND of the complement of that variable with
another variable, is equal to the ORing of the two variables. See the truth tables given below.

This law can be proved algebraically as shown below.

A + AB = (A + A)(A + B)
= 1 ◊ (A + B)
=A+B
Law 2: A( A + B) = AB
This law states that ANDing of a variable with the OR of the complement of that variable with
another variable, is equal to the ANDing of the two variables. See the truth tables given below.

This law can be proved algebraically as shown below.

A( A + B) = A A + AB
= 0 + AB
= AB
Complement of a term appearing in another term is redundant.

5.3.8 Idempotence Laws

Law 1: A◊A=A
Idempotence means the same value. We are already familiar with the following laws:
If A = 0, then A ◊ A = 0 ◊ 0 = 0 = A
If A = 1, then A ◊ A = 1 ◊ 1 = 1 = A
 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 183

This law states that ANDing of a variable with itself is equal to that variable only.
Law 2: A+A=A
If A = 0, then A + A = 0 + 0 = 0 = A
If A = 1, then A + A = 1 + 1 = 1 = A
This law states that ORing of a variable with itself is equal to that variable only.

5.3.9 Absorption Laws

There are two laws:
Law 1: A+A◊B=A
This law states that ORing of a variable (A) with the AND of that variable (A) and another
variable (B) is equal to that variable itself (A).

Algebraically, we have
A + A ◊ B = A(1 + B) = A ◊ 1 = A
Therefore,
A + A ◊ Any term = A
Law 2: A(A + B) = A
This law states that ANDing of a variable (A) with the OR of that variable (A) and another
variable (B) is equal to that variable itself (A).

Algebraically, we have
A(A + B) = A ◊ A + A ◊ B = A + AB = A(1 + B) = A ◊ 1 = A
Therefore,
A(A + Any term) = A
If a term appears in toto in another term, then the latter term becomes redundant and may be
removed from the expression without changing its value. Removal of a term is equivalent to replacing
that term by 0 if it is in a sum or by 1 if it is in a product.

5.3.10 Consensus Theorem (Included Factor Theorem)

Theorem 1: AB + AC + BC = AB + AC
184 FUNDAMENTALS OF DIGITAL CIRCUITS

Proof: LHS = AB + AC + BC
= AB + AC + BC(A + A)
= AB + AC + BCA + BCA
= AB(1 + C) + AC(1 + B)
= AB(1) + AC(1)
= AB + AC
= RHS
This theorem can be extended to any number of variables. For example,
AB + AC + BCD = AB + AC
LHS = AB + AC + BCD = AB + AC + BC + BCD = AB + AC + BC = AB + AC = RHS
Theorem 2: (A + B)( A + C)(B + C) = (A + B)( A + C)
Proof: LHS = (A + B)( A + C)(B + C) = (A A + AC + B A + BC)(B + C)
= (AC + BC + AB)(B + C)
= ABC + BC + AB + AC + BC + ABC = AC + BC + AB
RHS = (A + B) ( A + C)
= A A + AC + BC + AB
= AC + BC + AB = LHS
If a sum of products comprises a term containing A and a term containing A, and a third term
containing the left-out literals of the first two terms, then the third term is redundant, that is, the
function remains the same with and without the third term removed or retained.
This theorem can be extended to any number of variables. For example,
(A + B)( A + C)(B + C + D) = (A + B)(A + C)
LHS = (A + B)( A + C)(B + C)(B + C + D) = (A + B)( A + C) (B + C)
= (A + B)( A + C)

5.3.11 Transposition Theorem

Theorem: AB + AC = (A + C)( A + B)
Proof: RHS = (A + C)( A + B)
= A A + C A + AB + CB
= 0 + AC + AB + BC
= AC + AB + BC(A + A)
= AB + ABC + AC + ABC
= AB + AC
= LHS
 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 185

5.3.12 De Morgan’s Theorem

De Morgan’s theorem represents two of the most powerful laws in Boolean algebra.
Law 1: A + B = AB
This law states that the complement of a sum of variables is equal to the product of their
individual complements. What it means is that the complement of two or more variables ORed
together, is the same as the AND of the complements of each of the individual variables.
Schematically, each side of this law can be represented as:

It shows that the NOR gate is equivalent to a bubbled AND gate. This has also been shown
quite simply by truth tables.
This law can be extended to any number of variables or combinations of variables. For
example,
A + B + C + D +  = A BC D .

AB + CD + EFG +  = (AB)(CD)(EFG)  = (A + B)(C + D)(E + F + G) 

It may thus be seen that this law permits removal of individual variables from under a NOT
sign and transformation from a sum-of-products form to a product-of-sums form.
Law 2: AB = A + B
This law states that the complement of the product of variables is equal to the sum of their
individual complements. That is, the complement of two or more variables ANDed together, is
equal to the sum of the complements of each of the individual variables. Schematically, we have
186 FUNDAMENTALS OF DIGITAL CIRCUITS

It shows that the NAND gate is equivalent to a bubbled OR gate. This has also been shown
quite simply by truth tables.
This law can be extended to any number of variables or combinations of variables. For
example,
ABCD ... = A + B + C + D + ...

(AB)(CD)(EFG) ... = AB + CD + EFG + ...

(A + B)(C + D)(E + F + G) = (A + B) + (C + D) + (E + F + G) = A B + C D + E FG
It may also be seen that like law 1, law 2 also permits removal of individual variables from
under a NOT sign, and transformation from a product-of-sums form to a sum-of-products form.
It may be seen that the transformations
A + B = AB
AB = A + B
can be extended to complicated expressions by the following three steps:
1. Complement the entire given function.
2. Change all the ANDs to ORs and all the ORs to ANDs.
3. Complement each of the individual variables.
4. Change all 0s to 1s and 1s to 0s.
This procedure is called demorganization or complementation of switching expressions. It is
f (A, B, C, ..., 0, 1, +, ◊)c = f ( A, B, C, ..., 1, 0, ◊, +)

5.3.13 Shannon’s Expansion Theorem

Shannon’s expansion theorem states that any switching expression can be decomposed with respect
to a variable A into two parts, one containing A and the other containing A. This concept is useful
in decomposing complex machines into an interconnection of smaller components.
f (A, B, C, ...) = A ◊ f (1, B, C ...) + A ◊ f (0, B, C, ...)
f (A, B, C, ...) = [A + f (0, B, C, ...)] ◊ [ A + f (1, B, C, ...)]
EXAMPLE 5.1 Demorganize f = (A + B)(C + D)
Solution
The given function is f = (A + B)(C + D)
 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 187

Complement the entire function = (A + B)(C + D)

Change ANDs to ORs and ORs
to ANDs =A◊ B+C◊ D
Complement the variables =A◊B+ C◊D

EXAMPLE 5.2 Apply Demorgan’s theorem to the expression f = AB(CD + EF)(AB + CD) .
Solution
The given expression is f = AB(CD + EF)(AB + CD)

= AB + CD + EF + AB + CD
= AB + ( CD ◊ EF ) + ( AB ◊ CD )
= AB + ( C + D)(E + F) + ABCD
A second method of performing demorganization is ‘Break the line, change the sign’. For
example, if we wish to demorganize the expression AB + CDE , we can break the line between
A and B, and the line between C and D, and that between D and E and change the sign from
ANDing to ORing. This yields A + B + C + D + E .

EXAMPLE 5.3 Reduce the expression f = AB + A + AB .

Solution
The given expression is
f = AB + A + AB
Break the upper line between AB and A, and that between A and AB, and change the signs
between AB, A, AB and simplify.
f = AB ◊ A ◊ AB
= AB ◊ A ◊ AB
= AB ◊ AB
=0
Alternatively:
Break the lower line between A and B and change the sign between them and simplify.
f = A + B + A + AB

= A + B + AB
Break the line between A and B, and that between B and AB, and change the sign between
them.
f = A ◊ B ◊ AB = AB ◊ AB = 0

Also, f = AB + A + AB = 1 + A = 1 = 0
188 FUNDAMENTALS OF DIGITAL CIRCUITS

5.3.14 Additional Theorems

Theorem 1: X ◊ f (X, X, Y, ..., Z) = X ◊ f (1, 0, Y, ..., Z)

This theorem states that if a function containing expressions/terms with X and X is multiplied by
X, then all the Xs and Xs in the function can be replaced by 1s and 0s, respectively. This is
permissible because,
X ◊ X = X = X ◊ 1 and X ◊ X = 0 = X ◊ 0
Theorem 2: X + f (X, X, Y, …, Z) = X + f (0, 1, Y, …, Z)
This theorem states that if a function containing expressions/terms with X and X is added to X,
then all the Xs and Xs in the function can be replaced by 0s and 1s, respectively. This is permissible
because,
X + X = X = X + 0 and X + X = 1 = X + 1.
Theorem 3: f (X, X, Y, …, Z ) = X ◊ f (1, 0, Y, …, Z) + X ◊ f (0, 1, Y, …, Z),
Theorem 4: f (X, X, Y, …, Z ) = [ X + f (0, 1, Y, …, Z)] ◊ [ X + f (1, 0, Y, …, Z)]

5.4 DUALITY
We know that in a positive logic system the more positive of the two voltage levels is represented
by a 1 and the more negative by a 0. In a negative logic system the more positive of the two voltage
levels is represented by a 0 and the more negative by a 1. This distinction between positive and
negative logic systems is important because an OR gate in the positive logic system becomes an
AND gate in the negative logic system, and vice versa. Positive and negative logics thus give rise
to a basic duality in all Boolean identities. When changing from one logic system to another, 0
becomes 1 and 1 becomes 0. Furthermore, an AND gate becomes an OR gate and an OR gate
becomes an AND gate. Given a Boolean identity, we can produce a dual identity by changing all
‘+’ signs to ‘◊’ signs, all ‘.’ signs to ‘+’ signs, and complementing all 0s and 1s. The variables are
not complemented in this process.
The implication of the duality concept is that once a theorem or statement is proved, the dual
also thus stands proved. This is called the principle of duality.
[f(A, B, C, ..., 0, 1, +, ◊)]d = f(A, B, C, ..., 1, 0, ◊, +)
Relations between complement and dual
fc(A, B, C, ...) = f(A, B, C, ...) = f d (A, B, C, ...)
fd(A, B, C, ...) = f(A, B, C, ...) = fc( A, B, C, ...)
The first relation states that the complement of a function f(A, B, C, ...) can be obtained by
complementing all the variables in the dual function fd( A, B, C, ...). Likewise, the second relation
states that the dual can be obtained by complementing all the literals in f(A, B, C, ...) .
Some dual identities are given as follows:
 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 189

5.4.1 Duals
Given Expression Dual
1. 0 =1 1 =0
2. 0◊1=0 1+0=1
3. 0◊0=0 1+1=1
4. 1◊1=1 0+0=0
5. A◊0=0 A+1=1
6. A◊1=A A+0=A
7. A◊A=A A+A=A
8. A◊A=0 A+A=1
9. A◊B=B◊A A+B=B+A
10. A ◊ (B ◊ C) = (A ◊ B) ◊ C A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
11. A ◊ (B + C) = AB + AC A + BC = (A + B) (A + C)
12. A(A + B) = A A + AB = A
13. A ◊ (A ◊ B) = A ◊ B A+A+B=A+B
14. AB = A + B A + B = AB
15. (A + B)( A + C) (B + C) = (A + B)( A + C) AB + AC + BC = AB + AC
16. (A + C)( A + B) = AB + AC AC + AB = (A + B) ( A + C)
17. A + BC = (A + B)(A + C) A( B + C) = (A B + AC)
18. (A + B)(C + D) = AC + AD + BC + BD (AB + CD) = (A + C) (A + D)(B + C)(B + D)
19. A + B = AB + AB + A B AB = (A + B)( A + B)(A + B)
20. A + B (C + DE) = A + B CDE A[B + (C ◊ D + E)] = A ◊ (B + C + D + E)
21. AB + A + AB = 0 A + B ◊ A ◊ (A + B) = 1
22. AB + AC + A BC (AB + C) = 1 (A + B)( A + C) ◊ [(A + B + C) + (A + B)C] = 0
23. ABD + ABCD = ABD (A + B + D) (A + B + C + D) = (A + B + D)
24. AB + ABC + A(B + A B) = 0 (A + B) ◊ (A + B + C) . (A + [B(A + B)]) = 1
25. A + BC(A + BC) = A + BC A ◊ [( B + C) + A ◊ ( B + C)] = A ◊ ( B + C)

5.5 REDUCING BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS

Every Boolean expression must be reduced to as simple a form as possible before realization,
because every logic operation in the expression represents a corresponding element of hardware.
Realization of a digital circuit with the minimal expression, therefore, results in reduction of cost
and complexity and the corresponding increase in reliability. To reduce Boolean expressions, all
the laws of Boolean algebra may be used. The techniques used for these reductions are similar to
those used in ordinary algebra. The procedure is:
(a) Multiply all variables necessary to remove parentheses.
(b) Look for identical terms. Only one of those terms be retained and all others dropped. For
example,
AB + AB + AB + AB = AB
190 FUNDAMENTALS OF DIGITAL CIRCUITS

(c) Look for a variable and its negation in the same term. This term can be dropped. For
example,
A ◊ B B = A ◊ 0 = 0; ABC C = AB ◊ 0 = 0
(d) Look for pairs of terms that are identical except for one variable which may be missing in
one of the terms. The larger term can be dropped. For example,
AB CD + AB C = AB C( D + 1) = AB C ◊ 1 = AB C
(e) Look for pairs of terms which have the same variables, with one or more variables
complemented. If a variable in one term of such a pair is complemented while in the
second term it is not, then such terms can be combined into a single term with that variable
dropped. For example,
AB C D + AB CD = AB C ( D + D) = AB C ◊ 1 = AB C
AB(C + D) + AB( C + D ) = AB[(C + D) + ( C + D )] = AB ◊ 1 = AB

EXAMPLE 5.4 Reduce the expression f = A[B + C( AB + AC)].

Solution
The given expression is f = A[B + C( AB + AC )]
Demorganize AB + AC = A[B + C( AB AC )]
Demorganize AB and AC = A[B + C( A + B)( A + C)]
Multiply ( A + B)( A + C) = A[B + C( AA + AC + BA + BC)]
Simplify = A(B + CA + CAC + C BA + C BC)
Simplify = A(B + CA + 0 + C BA + 0)
Simplify = AB + A CA + A C BA
Simplify = AB + 0 + 0
Simplify = AB

EXAMPLE 5.5 Reduce the expression f = A + B[AC + (B + C)D].

Solution
The given expression is f = A + B[AC + (B + C)D]
Expand (B + C)D = A + B(AC + BD + CD)
Expand B(AC + BD + CD) = A + BAC + BBD + B CD
Write in order = A + ABC + BD + B CD
Factor = A(1 + BC) + BD(1 + C)
Reduce = A ◊ 1 + BD ◊ 1
Simplify = A + BD

EXAMPLE 5.6 Reduce the expression f = ( A + BC)(A B + ABC).

Solution
The given expression is f = ( A + BC)(A B + ABC)
 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 191

Demorganize ( A + BC) = ( A BC )(A B + ABC)

Simplify = ( ABC)(A B + ABC)
Multiply = ABC A B + ABC ABC
Rearrange = A AB BC + A ABBCC
=0+0=0
EXAMPLE 5.7 Reduce the expression f = (B + BC) (B + BC) (B + D).
Solution
The given expression is f = (B + BC)(B + BC)(B + D)
Multiply the first two terms = (BB + BCB + B BC + BC BC)(B + D)
Reduce = (B + BC + 0 + 0)(B + D)
Factor = B(1 + C)(B + D)
Reduce = B(B + D)
Expand = BB + BD
Simplify = B(1 + D) = B
EXAMPLE 5.8 Show that AB + A BC + B C = AC + B C.
Solution
AB + A BC + B C = A(B + BC) + B C
= A(B + B)(B + C) + B C
= AB + AC + B C
= AB(C + C) + AC + B C
= ABC + AB C + AC + B C
= AC(1 + B) + B C(1 + A)
= AC + B C
EXAMPLE 5.9 Show that A BC + B + B D + AB D + AC = B + C.
Solution
A BC + B + BD + ABD + AC = A BC + AC + B(1 + D + A D)
= C( A + A B) + B
= C( A + A)(A + B) + B
= CA + C B + B
= (B + C) (B + B) + C A
= B + C + CA
= B + C(1 + A)
=B+C
EXAMPLE 5.10 Simplify the function
f(A, B, C) = (A + B)(A + C) + A B + A C