Boolean Expressions

Schematics and truth tables.

A
B
X
C


A B C X
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0


Schematic and Truth Table of Combinational Logic


These two methods are inadequate for a number of reasons:

Both schematics and truth tables take too much space to describe the operation of
complex circuits with numerous inputs.
The truth table "hides" circuit information.

The schematic diagram is difficult to use when trying to determine
output values for
each input combination.


To overcome these problems, a discipline much like algebra is practiced that uses
expressions to describe digital circuitry. These expressions, which are called
Boolean expressions, use the input variable names, A, B, C, etc., and combine them
using symbols representing the AND, OR, and NOT gates. These Boolean
expressions can be used to describe or evaluate the output of a circuit. There is an
additional benefit. Just like algebra, a set of rules exist that when applied to Boolean
expressions can dramatically simplify them. A simpler expression that produces the
same output can be realized with fewer logic gates. A lower gate count results in
cheaper circuitry, smaller circuit boards, and lower power consumption.

If your software uses binary logic, the logic can be represented with Boolean

expressions. Applying the rules of simplification will make the software run faster or
allow it to use less memory.
The next section describes the representation of the three primary logic functions,
NOT, AND, and OR, and how to convert combinational logic to a Boolean
expression.

Symbols of Boolean Algebra
Analogous behavior can be shown between Boolean algebra and mathematical
algebra, and as a result, similar symbols and syntax can be used. For example, the
following expressions hold true in math.


0 0 = 0 0 1 = 0 1 0 = 0 1 1 = 1


This looks like the AND function allowing an analogy to be drawn between the
mathematical multiply and the Boolean AND functions. Therefore, in Boolean
algebra, A AND'ed with B is written A B.

A

X = A B
B


Boolean Expression for the AND Function


Mathematical addition has a similar parallel in Boolean algebra, although it is not
quite as flawless. The following four mathematical expressions hold true for
addition.


0 + 0 = 0 0 + 1 = 1 1 + 0 = 1 1 + 1 = 2


The first three operations match the OR function, and if the last operation is viewed as
having a non-zero result instead of the decimal result of two, it too can be viewed as
operating similar to the OR function. Therefore, the Boolean OR function is analogous
to the mathematical function of addition.



A
X = A + B
B

Boolean Expression for the OR Function


An analogy cannot be made between the Boolean NOT and any mathematical

operation. Later in this chapter we will see how the NOT function, unlike AND and
OR, requires its own special theorems for algebraic manipulation. The NOT is
represented with a bar across the inverted element.


A X = A


Boolean Expression for the NOT Function


The NOT operation may be used to invert the result of a larger expression. For
example, the NAND function which places an inverter at the output of an AND gate is
written as:

X = A B

Since the bar goes across A B, the NOT is performed after the AND.
Let's begin with some simple examples. Can you determine the output of the
Boolean expression 1 + 0 + 1? Since the plus-sign represents the OR circuit, the
expression represents 1 or 0 or 1.

1
0
1

1

Circuit Representation of the Boolean Expression 1+0+1


Since an OR-gate outputs a 1 if any of its inputs equal 1, then 1 + 0 + 1 = 1.
The two-input
XOR operation is represented using the symbol ,
but it can also be represented using a
Boolean expression. Basically, the two-input XOR equals one if A = 0 and B = 1 or if A = 1
and B = 0. This gives us the following expression.

X = A B = A B + A B

The next section shows how the Boolean operators , +, , and the

NOT bar may be combined to represent complex combinational logic.

Boolean Expressions of Combinational Logic
Just as mathematical algebra combines multiplication and addition to create
complex expressions, Boolean algebra combines AND, OR, and NOT functions to
represent complex combinational logic. Our experience with algebra allows us to
understand the expression Y = X (X +5) + 3. The decimal value 5 is added to a copy
of X, the result of which is then multiplied by a second copy of X. Lastly, a decimal 3
is added and the final result is assigned to Y. This example shows us two things.

First, each mathematical operation has a priority, e.g., multiplication is performed
before addition. This priority is referred to as precedence. Second, variables such X
can appear multiple times in an expression, each appearance representing the current
value of X.
Boolean algebra allows for the same operation. Take for example the circuit
shown.

A
B
X
C

Sample of Multi-Level Combinational Logic


Notice the use of parenthesis in step c. Just as in mathematical algebra, parenthesis can
be used to force the order in which operations are taken. In the absence of parenthesis,
however, the AND, OR, and NOT functions have an order of precedence.




Creating Boolean Expression from Combinational Logic


Laws of Boolean Algebra
The manipulation of algebraic expressions is based on fundamental laws. Some of
these laws extend to the manipulation of Boolean expressions. For example, the
commutative law of algebra which states that the result of an operation is the same
regardless of the order of operands holds true for Boolean algebra too. This is shown
for the OR function applied to two variables in the truth tables of Figure 5-10.


A B A + B

A B B + A
0 0 0+0 = 0

0 0 0+0 = 0
0 1 0+1 = 1

0 1 1+0 = 1
1 0 1+0 = 1

1 0 0+1 = 1
1 1 1+1 = 1

1 1 1+1 = 1


Commutative Law for Two Variables OR'ed Together


Not only does above show how the commutative law applies to the OR function, it
also shows how truth tables can be used in Boolean algebra to prove laws and rules. If
a rule states that two Boolean expressions are equal, then by developing the truth
table for each expression and showing that the output is equal for all combinations of
ones and zeros at the input, then the rule is proven true.

Below, the three fundamental laws of Boolean algebra are given along with
examples.


Commutative Law: The results of the Boolean operations AND and OR are the same
regardless of the order of their operands.

A + B = B + A
A B = B A


Associative Law: The results of the Boolean operations AND and OR with three or
more operands are the same regardless of which pair of elements are operated on first.






A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
A (B C) = (A B) C


Distributive Law: The AND'ing of an operand with an OR expression is equivalent to
OR'ing the results of an AND between the first operand and each operand within the OR
expression.

A (B + C) = A B + A C


Rules of Boolean Algebra

NOT Rule
In algebra, the negative of a negative is a positive and taking the inverse of an
inverse returns the original value. Although the NOT gate does not have an equivalent
in mathematical algebra, it operates in a similar manner. If the Boolean inverse of a
Boolean inverse is taken, the original value results.


A = A
This is proven with a truth table.






Since the first column and the third column have the same pattern of ones and zeros,
they must be equivalent. Figure 5-11 shows this rule in schematic form.


A
A = A



Schematic Form of NOT Rule


OR Rules
If an input to a logic gate is a constant 0 or 1 or if the same signal is connected to
more than one input of a gate, a simplification of the expression is almost always
possible. This is true for the OR gate as is shown with the following four rules for
simplifying the OR function. First, what happens when one of the inputs to an OR
gate is a constant logic 0? It turns out that the logic 0 input drops out leaving the
remaining inputs to stand on their own. Notice that the two columns in the truth table
below are equivalent thus proving this rule.




Rule: A + 0 = A
A A + 0
0 0+0 = 0
1 1+0 = 1

What about inputting a logic 1 to an OR gate? In this case, a logic 1 forces the other
operands into the OR gate to drop out. Notice that the output column (A + 1) is always
equal to 1 regardless of what A equals. Therefore, the output of this gate will always be
1.

A A + 1

Rule: A + 1 = 1
0 0+1 = 1
1 1+1 = 1


If the same operand is connected to all of the inputs of an OR gate, we find that the
OR gate has no effect. Notice that the two columns in the truth table below are
equivalent thus proving this rule.

A A + A

Rule: A + A = A
0 0+0 = 0
1 1+1 = 1
Another case of simplification occurs when an operand is connected to one input of
a two-input OR gate and its inverse are connected to the other. In this case, either the
operand is equal to a one or its inverse is. There is no other possibility. Therefore, at
least one logic 1 is connected to the inputs of the OR gate. This gives us an output of
logic 1 regardless of the inputs.


Rule: A + A = 1


AND Rules
A A + A
0 0+1 = 1
1 1+0 = 1

Just as with the OR gate, if either of the inputs to an AND gate is a constant (logic 0
or logic 1) or if the two inputs are the same or inverses of each other, a simplification
can be performed. Let's begin with the case where one of the inputs to the AND gate is a
logic 0. Remember that an AND gate must have all ones at its inputs to output a one. In
this case, one of the inputs will always be zero forcing this AND to always output zero.
The truth table below shows this.



Rule: A 0 = 0
A A 0
0 0 0 = 0
1 1 0 = 0

If one input of a two-input AND gate is connected to a logic 1, then it only takes the
other input going to a one to get all ones on the inputs. If the other input goes to zero,
the output becomes zero. This means that the output follows the input that is not
connected to the logic 1.

A A 1

Rule: A 1 = A
0 0 1 = 0
1 1 1 = 1


If the same operand is connected to all of the inputs of an AND gate, we get a
simplification similar to that of the OR gate. Notice that the two columns in the truth
table below are equivalent proving this rule.


Rule: A A = A
A A A
0 0 0 = 0
1 1 1 = 1


Last of all, when an operand is connected to one input of a two-input AND gate and
its inverse is connected to the other, either the operand is equal to a zero or its inverse is
equal to zero. There is no other possibility. Therefore, at least one logic 0 is connected
to the inputs of the AND gate giving us an output of logic 0 regardless of the inputs.

A A A

Rule: A A = 0
0 0 1 = 0
1 1 0 = 0



XOR Rules
Now let's see what happens when we apply these same input conditions to a two-
input XOR gate. Remember that a two-input XOR gate outputs a 1 if its inputs are
different and a zero if its inputs are the same. If one of the inputs to a two-input XOR
gate is connected to a logic 0, then the gate's output follows the value at the second
input. In other words, if the second input is a zero, the inputs are the same forcing the
output to be zero and if the second input is a one, the inputs are different and the
output equals one.



Rule: A 0 = A
A
A 0

0
0 0 = 0

1
1 0 = 1

If one input of a two-input XOR gate is connected to a logic 1, then the XOR gate
acts as an inverter as shown in the table below.

A A 1

R
u
l
e: A 1 = A

0 0 1 = 1

1
1 1 = 0

If the same operand is connected to both inputs of a two-inputs XOR gate, then the
inputs are always the same and the gate outputs a 0.
A
A A

Rule: A A = 0

0 0 0 = 0

1
1 1 = 0

Lastly, if the inputs of a two-input XOR gate are inverses of each other, then the
inputs are always different and the output is 1.
A
A A

Rule: A A = 1

0
0 1 = 1

1
1 0 = 1


Derivation of Other Rules
If we combine the NOT, OR, and AND rules with the commutative, associative, and
distributive laws, we can derive other rules for Boolean algebra. This can be shown with
the following example.

Example
Prove that A + A B = A

Solution
A + A B = A 1 + A B Rule: A 1 = A

= A (1 + B) Distributive Law

= A (B + 1) Commutative Law

= A 1 Rule: A + 1 = 1

= A Rule: A 1 = A

Remember also that rules of Boolean algebra can be proven using a truth table. The
example below uses a truth table to derive another rule.



The mathematical "F-O-I-L" principle, based on the distributive law, works in Boolean
algebra too. FOIL is a memory aid referring to the multiplication pattern for multiplying
quadratic equations. It stands for:


F AND the first terms from each OR expression
O AND the outside terms (the first term from the first OR
expression and the last term from the last OR expression)
I AND the inside terms (the last term from the first OR
expression and the first term from the last OR expression)
L AND the last terms from each OR expression

Example
Prove (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC
Solution
(A + B) (A + C) = (A + B) A + (A + B) C Distributive Law

= A A + B A + A C + B C Distributive Law

= A + B A + A C + B C Rule: A A = A

= A + A B + A C + B C Commutative Law

= A + A C + B C Rule: A + A B = A
= A + B C Rule: A + A B = A