EXPERIMENT NO.

(1)
OHM'S LAW
THEORY :-
Ohm's law states that the current pass through conductor is directly
proportional to applied voltage. In other words, a high voltage is applied across
resistor cause a high current flow through it and if the applied voltage is decrease
,the current flow is decrease too.

𝑰 ∝𝑽

The constant of this proportional is the resistance (R) of conductor (when the
resistance means opposition to the current flow). Mathematically, the relationship
between the voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R) can be expressed by Ohm's
law as in the following formula:
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 =
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑽
𝑰=
𝑹
PROCEDURE (A):
1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 1.
2. Set the power supply (E) at 10 volt.
3. Measure the voltage(V) across resistor(R) and current(I) passing through it
practically for each value of (R) as shown in Table 1, then record the results in
the same table

PROCEDURE (B):
1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 2.
2. Set the power supply (E) at 2 volt.
3. Measure the voltage (V) across resistor (R) and current (I) passing through it
practically and record the result in Table 2.
4. Repeat step 3 for E = 4, 6, 8, and 10 volt.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAME:

Figure(1)

Table(1)

Practical
E(V) R(Ω) I(A) V(V)
100
220
10 330
560
1.3k

100 Ω

Figure 2

Table 2

Practical Theoretical
E(V) I(A) V(V) I(A) V(V)
2
4
6
8
10
 DISCUSSION:-
1. From procedure (A), draw the relation between the practical current (I) and
resistance (R) in graph paper. Then show this relation is directly or inversely
proportional?
2. From procedure (B), draw the relation between the practical current (I) and
voltage (V) in graph paper . Calculate the value of R from this graph. Then
show this relation is directly or inversely proportional?
3. 3. What is the potential voltage drop (V) across a resistor (R) 6Ω if the
current(I) 2.5A ?
4. 4. What is the current (I) passing through a 72 Ω resistor (R) if voltage drop
(V) across it is 12 V ?
5. 5. How much resistance (R) is required to limit the current (I) to 0.76A if the
potential drop (V) across the resistance(R)it is 120V ?
 EXPERIMENT NO. (2)
THEORY :-

Series Connection:

Series connection circuit is a circuit consists of any number of elements joined at

terminal points, providing at least one closed path through which charge can flow .

In a series circuit, the current through all series elements is same. The total
resistance of the series circuit is determined by simply adding the values of the
various resistors. In general, to find the total resistance (RT) of N resistors in series,
the following equation is applied:

𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹 𝑻 + ⋯ + 𝑹𝑵

and the voltage across each element can be determined from:

V1 = IR1 , V2 = IR2 ,….., and VN = IRN

Generally the voltage (Vx) across a single resistor or combination of resistors (Rx)
in a series circuit can be determined without finding the

Current from:
𝑬𝑹𝒙
𝑽𝒙 =
𝑹𝑻
Where E is the total voltage and RT is the total resistance.

B)Parallel Connection:-

Two or more elements are in parallel if they have two common points. The total
resistance of such connection can be determined by applying the following
equation.
𝟏⁄ = 𝟏⁄ + 𝟏⁄ + 𝟏⁄ + ⋯ . + 𝟏⁄
𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝑵

The total resistance of parallel resistors group is always less than the value of the
smallest resistor in this group. For equal resistors, the total resistance (RT) of N
equal parallel resistors ( i. e R1 = R2 = R3 = …. RN = R ) is the resistance of any
resistor divided by N (i.e., Req = R)
𝐑
𝐑𝐓 =
𝐍
The total resistance of two parallel resistors is the product of these two resistors as
illustrated in the following equation .
 𝐑𝟏 ∗ 𝐑𝟐
𝐑𝐓 =
𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐

The voltage across N parallel elements is the same ( V 1 = V 2 = V3 = .... = VN = E),

and the source current is equal to the sum of the individual branch currents.

IT = I1 + I3 +….. + IN

C ) Complex Series – Parallel Connection:-

Combination of series and parallel resistors are encountered frequently in

electrical and electronics circuits. In some instances resistors in series are used to
divide voltage, at other times a combination is employed to obtain a particular
value of resistance when such a value is not readily available in a single unit. A few
basic rules must be kept in mind when attempting to analyses combination
circuits:-

1. When a single resistor is in series with a parallel brunch of two or more

resistors, the total current flowing through the parallel circuit equal to the
current passing through the single series resistor.
2. The voltage drop across series resistors having different values will have
different voltage values, but in any parallel branch(even though in series with
other circuits) the same voltage drop appears across each resistor .

PROCEDURE:-

A) Series Connection:-

1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 1.

2. Set the power supply (E) at 5V .

3. Measure the voltage across each resistor.

4. Measure the total current (IT).

5. Measure the total resistor (RT).

6. Record all results in the Table 1.

B) Parallel Connection:-

1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 2.

2. Set the power supply (E) at 5V .

3. Measure the current passing through each resistor.

4. Measure the voltage across each resistor and the total voltage.

5. Measure the total resistor (RT).

6. Record all results in the Table 2.

C) Complex Connection:-

1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 3.

2. Set the power supply (E) at 5V .

3. Measure the total current (IT) passing through the circuit, also of each resistor
(what you see?)

4. Measure the voltage across each resistor. (what you see?)

5. Measure the total resistor (RT).

6. Record all results in the Table 3.

R1 R2 R3
IT 100 Ω 220 Ω 330 Ω

E
+

5V
V

Figure 1

Table 1

Practical

E(V) R( Ω) V(V) IT(mA) RT (Ω)

100

5 220

330
 IT

I1 I2 I3 V

+
E
R1 R2
5V R3
100 Ω 220 Ω Ω
330

-
Figure 2.

Table 2

Practical

E(V) R( Ω) VT(V) I (mA) RT (Ω)

100

5 220

330

R1
100 Ω
IT
V
+

E
5V R2 R3
220 Ω 330 Ω
-

Figure 3.
 Table 3.

Practical

E(V) R( Ω) V (V) I (mA) IT (mA) RT(Ω)

100

5 220

330

DISCUSION:-

1. What is the value of the unknown resistor ( R) in figure below, if the voltage
drop across 500Ω resistor is 2.5 V ?

R1 R2
550 Ω 50 Ω

E R3
12V R
500 Ω

2. Calculate the effective resistance of the following combination of resistances

between points A and B then find the voltage drop across each resistance
when a P.D of 60 V is applied between points A and B.

3Ω
A 18 Ω 8Ω B
C D
6Ω

5Ω
 EXPERIMENT NO. (3)
KIRCHHOFFS' LAWS
THEORY:-

The German scientist Gustva Kirchhoff's' who formulated two important

laws concerning the analysis of electric circuits. One of these laws is known as
Kirchhoff's' Current Law (KCL) and others Kirchhoff's' Voltage Law (KVL); they
may be stated as follows:

KCL:-

The sum of currents flowing into any junction of an electric circuit is equal to
the sum of currents flowing out of that junction, the algebraic sum of currents
entering a node is zero.

Mathematically, KCL implies that

𝑵

∑ 𝒊𝒏 = 𝟎
𝒏=𝟏

Where N is the number of branches connected to the node and in is the nth current
entering (or leaving)the node. By this law, currents entering a node may be
regarded as positive, while currents leaving the node may be taken as negative or
vice versa.

Consider the node in figure 1 .Applying KCL gives :

i1 + (- i2) + i3 + i4 + (-i5) = 0

since current i1, i3 and i4 are entering the node, while current i2 and i5 are leaving it.
By rearranging the terms, we get i1 + i3 + i4 = i2 + i

i2
i3 i1

a
i5 i4

Figure 1.
KVL:-

The sum of supplied voltages around any closed circuit is equal to the to the
sum of the voltage drops across the resistances around the same circuit or the
algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path (or loop) is zero.

Mathematically, KVL states that

𝑴

∑ 𝒗𝒎 = 𝟎
𝒎=𝟏

Where M is the number of voltage s in the loop(or the number of branches in the
loop)and vm is the mth voltage.

Consider the circuit in Fig.2 . The sign on each voltage is the polarity of the
terminal encountered first as we travel around the loop. We can start with any
branch and go around the loop either clockwise or counterclockwise. Suppose we
start with the voltage source and go clockwise around the loop as shown; then
voltage would be

-v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 = 0

Rearranging terms gives : v2 + v3 = v1 + v4

Which may be interpreted as :

Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises

V2 - V3 -
+

V1 V4

Figure 2
PROCEDURE:-

1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure below.

2. Set the power supplies at E1 = 6V & E2 = 12V .
3. Measure the current (I) passing through each resistance (R), and voltage (V)
across each resistance (R).
4. Record the results in the Table 1
5. From practical results verify Kirchhoff's' laws based on the practically results
.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAME:-

R1 R3
220 Ω 330 Ω

E1 E2
6V R2 12V
100 Ω

Table1

Practical

E1(V) E2(V) R( Ω) V (V) I (mA)

100

6 12 220

330
DISCUSSION:-

1- Find V1 and V2 in the circuit of Fig. below

R1
4Ω

V1 -

+
10V 8V
V2 -

+
R2
2Ω

2- Find I and Vab in the Fig. below.

R1 10V R2
3Ω a 5Ω

I
30V 8V

b
 EXPERIMENT NO. (4)
Superposition Theorem
THEORY:-

Superposition theorem states the following : The current through or voltage

across an element in a network is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents or
voltages produced independently by each source.

To consider the effects of each source independently requires that sources be

removed and replaced without effecting the final result. To remove a voltage source
when applying this theorem, the terminals of the voltage source must (short
circuit); while removing a current source requires that its terminals be opened
(open circuit).

As example for a two-source network, if the current produced by one source is in

one direction, while that produced by the other is in the opposite direction through
the same resistor, the resulting current is the difference of the two and has the
direction of the larger . If the individual currents are in the same direction, the
resulting current is the sum of two in the direction of either current. This rule holds
true for the voltage across a portion of a network as determined by polarities, and
it can be extended to networks with any number of sources.

PROCEDURE (A) :- (Without using Superposition theorem).

1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 1.

2. Set the power supplies at E1 = 12V & E2 = 6V .
3. Measure the current and voltage for each resistance.
4. Record your results in the Table 1.

PROCEDURE (B) :- (With using Superposition theorem).

i ) E1 on , E2 off
1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 2.
2. Set the power supplies at E1 = 12 V & E2 = ( S.C).
3. Measure the current and voltage for each resistance.
4. Record your results in the Table 2.
ii ) E1 off, E2 on
1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 3.
2. Set the power supplies at E1 = (S.C) & E2 = 6 V
3. Measure the current and voltage for each resistance.
4. Record your results in the Table 3.
 Verifying the Superpositon theorem :-

1. From practical results (the results that you obtain in Tables (1), (2), and (3)
verify superposition theorem, for this purpose use Table(4).

CICURIT DIAGRAME:-

R1 R3
220 Ω 330 Ω

E1 E2
12V R2 6V
100 Ω

Figure 1.

Table 1.

Practical

E1(V) E2(V) R( Ω) V (V) I (mA)

100

12 6 220

330

R1 R3
220 Ω 330 Ω

E1
12V R2
100 Ω

Figure 2.
 Table 2.

Practical

E1(V) E2(V) R Ω V(V) I(mA)

100

12 S.C 220

330

R1 R3
220 Ω 330 Ω

E2
R2 6V
100 Ω

Figure 3

Table 3.
Practical

E1(V) E2(V) R( Ω) V (V) I (mA)

100

S.C 6 220

330
 Table 4.

Verifying
V(V) I(mA)
R(Ω) E1=12V E1=S.C Algebra E1=12V E1=12V E1=S.C Algebra E1=12V
E2=S.C E2=6V Sum E2=6V E2=S.C E2=6V Sum E2=6V
100
220
330
DISCUSSION:-

1- Solve the voltage (V) across the (5k Ω) resistor in the circuit shown below, using
superposition theorem.

2- Find the current passing through (R2) using superposition theorem, for the
circuit shown below.
 EXPRIMENTS NO.(5)

THEVENIN'S THEOREM

THEORY:-

Any two terminals network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit

consisting of a voltage source (Vth) in series with a resistor (Rth) .

The following sequence of steps will lead to the proper value of (Vth)
and (Rth).

1. Remove the load resistor (RL) from network and mark the terminals of
remaining- two terminal network as in Figure 1, by latters (a) and (b)
points.

Figure 1

2. Find (Vth) by finding the open circuit voltage between the marked
terminals (a) and (b) as shown in Figure 2.
 Figure 2

1. Find (Rth) by setting all sources to zero (voltage sources are replaced by
short circuits and current sources by open circuits) and then find the
resultant resistance between the two marked terminals (a) and (b) as
shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3

2. Finally, draw the Thevenin equivalent as shown in Figure 4 by using

the values of ( Vth) and (Rth) that found in step 2&3 respectively and
reconnect (RL) between the terminals (a)and(b)of the Thevenin's
equivalent circuit.

Figure 4
Procedure :-
1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 5.
2. Measure the current (IL) and voltage (VL) of the load resistance (RL) .
3. Measure (Vth) .
4. Measure (Rth) .
5. Drawn Thevenin equivalent circuit and then connect (RL) between
terminals a&b.
6. From the Thevenin equivalent circuit, measure the current (IL) and
voltage (VL) of the load resistance (RL )
7. Compare the results of step 2 with that of step 6 (what you abserve ?).

Figure 5

DISCUSSION:-

1. Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit between terminals

a&b for the network in Figure 6

Figure 6
2. Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit between terminals a&b for the
network in Figure 7, and calculate Il and VL when RL = 2,10,12 Ω .

Figure 7
 EXPRIMENTS NO.(6)

NORTON'S THEOREM

THEORY:-

Any two terminals network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit

consisting of a current source (IN) in parallel with a resistor (RN) .

The following sequence of steps will lead to the proper value of (IN) and
(RN).

1. Remove the load resistor (RL) from network and mark the terminals of
remaining- two terminal network as in Figure 1, by latters (a) and (b)
points.

(b)

Figure 1

2. Find (IN) by finding the short circuit current between the marked
terminals (a) and (b) as shown in Figure 2.
 Figure 2

3. Find (RN) by setting all sources to zero (voltage sources are replaced by
short circuits and current sources by open circuits) and then find the
resultant resistance between the two marked terminals (a) and (b) as
shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3

4. Finally, draw the Norton equivalent circuit as shown in Figure 4 by

using the values of ( IN) and (RN) that found in step 2&3 respectively
and reconnect (RL) between the terminals (a)and(b)of the Norton's
equivalent circuit.
 Figure 4

Procedure :-
1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 5.
2. Measure the current (IL) and voltage (VL) of the load resistance (RL) .
3. Measure (IN) .
4. Measure (RN) .
5. Drawn Norton equivalent circuit and then connect (RL) between
terminals a&b.
6. From the Norton equivalent circuit, measure the current (IL) and
voltage (VL) of the load resistance (RL )
7. Compare the results of step 2 with that of step 6 (what you observe ?).

Figure 5

1. Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the portion of the

network to the left of a&b for the network in Figure 6.
 Figure 6.

2. Find the Norton equivalent circuit between terminals a&b

for the network in Figure 7.

R1
5Ω

R1 R3
4Ω I 9Ω
10A

Figure 7.
 EXPRIMENTS NO.(7)

MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER

THEORY:-

The maximum output power is obtained from a network or source

when the load resistance is equal to the output resistance of the network or
source as seen from the terminals of the load.

The Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the maximum power at a

load. If the entire circuit is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent (except the
load) as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1

The power delivered to the load is given by:

𝑽𝒕𝒉 𝟐
𝟐
𝑷𝑳 = 𝑰𝑳 ∗ 𝑽𝑳 = 𝑰𝑳 ∗ 𝑹𝑳 = (𝑹 ) ∗ 𝑹𝑳
𝑳+ 𝑹𝒕𝒉

For maximum power; RL = RTH ,then

𝑽𝒕𝒉 𝟐
𝑷𝑳 =
𝟒𝑹𝒕𝒉
PROCEDURE:-

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 2.

2. Set the power supply (E) at 5 volt.
 3. Measure the voltage VL across resistance RL and current IL passing
through it practically for each value of RL as shown in Table [Link]
record the results in the same table.
4. Calculate the output power PL at each value of RL and record your
results in Table 1.
5. In Table 1 point the maximum output power and the value of RL in
this power.
6. Compare the value of RL that you determine in step 5 with the value
of R1.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :-

Figure 2.

Table 1.

Practical
R(Ω) V(V) I(mA) PL(W)
180
220
330
560
1.3K
2.2K

DISCUSSION:-

1. From Table 1draw IL,VL , and PL with RL .

2. From the curve of PL determine RL value of RL
3. For the network of Fig.3 determine the value R for maximum
power R, and calculate the power delivered under these
condition.
 Figure 3.
4. Find the value of RL in Fig.4 for maximum power to RL, and
determined the maximum power.

Figure 4.