ELECTRODYNAMICS

Electrodynamics
deals with charges in motion.
Charges flow in a closed conducting path which is called
the electrical circuit.

Three essential elements in an electric circuit:

1. Electric current
2. Resistance
3. Voltage or Potential Difference
Ohm’s Law
Georg Simon Ohm established the relationship
among current resistance, and voltage.
 Electric Current
The amount of charge passing through any
How do current point in a conductor per unit time.
flow?
SI unit of current is Ampere
1 A = 1 C/s

Direct Current Alternating

Current
Electrical Resistance
The opposition of a material to the flow of
charges or electric current.

Factors Affecting Resistance of an Object

1. cross sectional area
2. Length
3. kind of material
4. temperature
 Electrical Resistance
A wire is 100.0 cm long and has resistance of 25.0 Ω. This wire is cut
into five equal parts. (a) What is the resistance of each piece of
wire? (b) If the five pieces were bundled together, what is the
resistance of the resulting wire?
Given:
L1 = 100.0 cm
R1 = 25.0 Ω
b)
a)
 Electrical Resistance
An insulated extension cord is made of a 1.5 m long copper rod with a diameter of
2.3 mm. a) What is the resistance of the extension cord? If an aluminum wire of
the same length will be used instead of a copper, what should be the length of
the aluminum wire for the extension cord to have the same resistance?
Given:
Lcopper = 1.5 m
dcopper = 2.3 mm = 2.3 x 10^-3 m
ρcopper = 1.72 x 10^-8 Ω m
ρaluminum = 2.3 mm = 2.3 x 10^-3 m
First, solve for the cross sectional area of the
copper.

Then, solve for the resistance.

 Electrical Resistance
An insulated extension cord is made of a 1.5 m long copper rod with a diameter of
2.3 mm. a) What is the resistance of the extension cord? If an aluminum wire of
the same length will be used instead of a copper, what should be the length of
the aluminum wire for the extension cord to have the same resistance?
Given:
Lcopper = 1.5 m
dcopper = 2.3 mm = 2.3 x 10^-3 m
ρcopper = 1.72 x 10^-8 Ω m
ρaluminum = 2.3 mm = 2.3 x 10^-3 m
Solving for the diameter of the aluminum wire.
Electrical Resistance
The resistance of a platinum wire at
30°C is 15.0 Ω. Find its resistance
at 45°C. α = 0.0039/C° at 20°C
Given:
T = 30°C
R30 = 15.0 Ω
α = 0.0039/C° at 20°C
Color Code for Resistors 5 6 3 56 x 10^3
Resistors are used to regulate the flow of current
±5%
 Electromotive Force (EMF) and Potential Difference
It is needed or supplied to get the electric current flowing.

Common Sources of Potential Difference:

1. Electric cells that convert chemical energy to

electrical energy;

2. Generators that convert

mechanical energy to
electrical energy;

3. Solar cells or photovoltaic cells

that convert light energy to
electrical energy.
Electromotive Force and Potential Difference
An electric cell has one positive electrode and one
negative electrode.
 Electromotive Force and Terminal Voltage
A cell offers low resistance to current and is called
internal resistance (r)
Electromotive force is the voltage indicated on a battery
while terminal voltage is the potential difference
across its terminals. TV – terminal voltage (V)
ε – EMF (V)
I – current (A)
r – internal resistance (Ω)
A cell has a terminal voltage of 50.0V for a current of 10.0 A, and
54 V for a current of 6.0 A. Find the electromotive force and
the internal resistance of the cell.
a) Using Ohm’s law b) Using formula for TV
 Electromotive Force and Terminal Voltage
A cell offers low resistance to current and is called
internal resistance (r)
Electromotive force is the voltage indicated on a battery
while terminal voltage is the potential difference
across its terminals. TV – terminal voltage (V)
ε – EMF (V)
I – current (A)
r – internal resistance (Ω)
The electromotive force of a cell is 1.5 V. When connected to an
external load of 3.0 Ω, the voltage drops to 1.35 V. Find the (a)
current and (b) internal resistance of the cell.
a) Using Ohm’s law b) Using formula for TV
 Combination of Cells
A battery is a combination of cells. It can be connected in
series or parallel.
 Battery
Also referred as canned electricity. It is the a ready to use
mobile source of electrical energy that powers
modern gadgets and other devices.

Cells in Series Cells in Parallel

 Battery Cells in Series Cells in Parallel
Five cells, each of emf of 1.5V and internal
resistance of 0.5Ω are connected in (a) series,
(b) parallel. The external resistance of the
circuit is 3.0 Ω. For each case, find the (a)
total internal resistance, (b) total resistance,
(c) emf of the battery (d) current through the
external circuit, and (e) terminal voltage of
the battery.
a) CELLS IN SERIES

Total internal resistance Terminal Voltage of the

= 5(0.5 Ω) = 2.5 Ω battery
Total resistance of the circuit TV = E – Ir
= 3.0 Ω + 2.5 Ω = 5.5 Ω TV = 7.5 V – (1.4A)(2.5Ω)
Emf of the battery TV = 7.5 V – 3.5 V
= 5(1.5 V) = 7.5 V TV = 4.0 V
Current through the circuit
I = V/R = 7.5 V/5.5Ω = 1.4 A
 Battery Cells in Series Cells in Parallel
Five cells, each of emf of 1.5V and internal
resistance of 0.5Ω are connected in (a) series,
(b) parallel. The external resistance of the
circuit is 3.0 Ω. For each case, find the (a)
total internal resistance, (b) total resistance,
(c) emf of the battery (d) current through the
external circuit, and (e) terminal voltage of
the battery.
a) CELLS IN PARALLEL

Total internal resistance Terminal Voltage of the

= 0.5 Ω/5 = 0.1 Ω battery
Total resistance of the circuit TV = E – Ir
= 3.0 Ω + 0.1 Ω = 3.1 Ω TV = 1.5 V – (0.48A)(0.1Ω)
Emf of the battery TV = 1.5 V – 0.048 V
= 1.5 V TV = 1.452V
Current through the circuit
I = V/R = 1.5 V/3.1Ω = 0.48 A
Cells in series produced greater resultant voltage but do not last longer. The cells in parallel do
not exhaust easily and thus they last longer.
Simple Electric Circuits
 Laws for Resistors in Series and Resistors in Parallel

Three resistors of 2.0 Ω, 3.0 Ω, and 4.0 Ω are connected in (a) series
(b) parallel. Find the equivalent resistors in each case.
(a) series Total resistance = 2.0 Ω + 3.0 Ω + 4.0 Ω = 9Ω
(b) parallel
 Find the equivalent resistance of the combination of the resistors shown.

R23 = 3.5Ω + 2.5Ω = 6.0Ω

1/RP = 1/6Ω + 1/24Ω = 5/24Ω

RP = 24Ω/5 = 4.8 Ω

Total resistance = 5.0 Ω + 4.8 Ω + 9.20 Ω = 19Ω

A 20.0 ohm resistor is connected in parallel with a 5.0
ohm resistor, with a 50.0 V across the combination.
Find (a) voltage across each resistor, (b) current passing
through each resistor, and (c) the total current passing
through the combination. Repeat (a), (b), and (c) but
this time the resistors are in series.

a) Voltage across each resistor

= 50.0 V
(b) current passing through each resistor
Current at the 20 ohm Current at the 5 ohm resistor
resistor I = 50 V/ 5 Ω = 10 A
I = 50 V/20Ω = 2.5 A
(c) Total current passing through the combination
= 2.5 A + 10.0 A = 12.5 A
A 20.0 ohm resistor is connected in parallel with a 5.0
ohm resistor, with a 50.0 V across the combination.
Find (a) voltage across each resistor, (b) current passing
through each resistor, and (c) the total current passing
through the combination. Repeat (a), (b), and (c) but
this time the resistors are in SERIES.

a) Voltage across each resistor

50.0 V =V1 + V2
I1 = I2 (b) current passing
through each resistor

(c) Total current passing through

the combination
IT = I1 = I2 = 2 A
Kirchhoff’s Laws It is used to determine currents in a complex
network.
Kirchhoff’s Junction Law states that the current entering the junction and the
currents leaving it must be equal to zero. A junction is a point where three or
more wires are connected.
Kirchhoff’s Loop Law or Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of the emf’s and
the voltage drop in any loop must be zero. A loop is a closed conducting path.
Steps to follow when applying Kirchhoff’s Laws:
1. Label the current as I1, I2, and so on.
2. Assume a direction for each current.
3. In writing the junction equation, currents entering the junction is positive; and current
leaving the junction is negative.
4. In applying the loop rule, begin at a point in the loop and go around in a clockwise or
counterclockwise direction.
5. In writing a loop equation, the following sign conventions must be observed:
a. The emf is positive if traversed from the negative terminal to the positive terminal. It
is negative if traversed from positive terminal to the negative terminal.
b. The potential difference IR across each resistor is negative when resistor is traversed
from the direction of the current. Otherwise, it is negative.
6. The unknown currents are determined by simultaneous loop equations as well as
junction equations.
 Kirchhoff’s Laws
Determine I1, I2, and I3 given that E1 = 5.0 V, E2 =
10.0 V, and E3 = 12.0 V, R1 = 2.0 Ω, R2 = 3.0 Ω
and R3 = 4.0 Ω

1. Label the current as I1, I2, and I3.

2. Assume a direction for each current.
3. In writing the junction equation, currents entering
the junction is positive; and current leaving the
junction is negative.
For Junction A: I1 –I2 – I3 = 0
For Junction B: -I1, +I2 +I3 = 0
4. In applying the loop rule, begin at a point in the loop
and go around in a clockwise or counterclockwise
direction. 5V 2Ω
Loop 1:
- 5V +2I1 +3I2 +10 V = 0

10 V 3Ω
 Kirchhoff’s Laws
Determine I1, I2, and I3 given that E1 = 5.0 V, E2 =
10.0 V, and E3 = 12.0 V, R1 = 2.0 Ω, R2 = 3.0 Ω
and R3 = 4.0 Ω

Loop 1:
- 5V +2I1 +3I2 +10 V = 0

10 V 3Ω

Loop 2:
- 10V -3I2 - 12 V +4I3 = 0

4Ω 12 V

5V 2Ω
Loop 3:
- 5V +2I1 - 12 V +4I3 = 0

4Ω 12 V
 Kirchhoff’s Laws
Determine I1, I2, and I3 given that E1 = 5.0 V, E2 =
10.0 V, and E3 = 12.0 V, R1 = 2.0 Ω, R2 = 3.0 Ω
and R3 = 4.0 Ω
For Junction A: I1 –I2 – I3 = 0
For Junction B: -I1, +I2 +I3 = 0
Loop 1: - 5V +2I1 +3I2 +10 V = 0
Loop 2: - 10V -3I2 - 12 V +4I3 = 0
Loop 3: - 5V +2I1 - 12 V +4I3 = 0

I1 –I2 – I3 = 0 I1 = I2 + I3

- 5V +2I1 +3I2 +10 V = 0 I2 = (-2I1 – 5V)/3

- 5V +2I1 - 12 V +4I3 = 0 I3 = (-2I1 + 17 V)/4

I2 = (-2(1.19 A) – 5V)/3
I2 = -2.46 A
I3 = (-2(1.19 A) + 17V)/4
I3 = 3.65 A
 Measurement of Current Voltage and Resistance
The current, voltage, and electrical resistance are measured by an
ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter respectively
A galvanometer is the heart of non-digital
meters. It is a device used to detect the
presence of current.

An ammeter is a galvanometer with a low

resistance, called shunt resistor,
connected parallel to it. It is always
connected in series with the circuit
element whose current is to be
determined.
Measurement of Current Voltage and Resistance
An voltmeter is a device that measures emf or potential difference
between two points. It is a galvanometer with a high resistance in
series. It is connected across or parallel with the circuit element
whose voltage is to be determined.

An ohmmeter is a galvanometer
in series with a battery and a
resistor R1. When the
terminals x and y are
connected, the galvanometer
deflects full scale.

The Wheatstone bridge is an

electrical circuit used for
comparing resistances.
 Measurement of Current Voltage and Resistance
A galvanometer has a coil resistance of 50.0 Ω and a full scale current
of 1.0 mA. Convert this to an ammeter reading 10 A full scale.
By law of parallel resistors: VT = VG = VP
I = IG + IP IGRG = IPRP
10 A = 0.001 A + IP (0.001 A)(50.0Ω) = 9.999ARP
IP = 9.999 A RP = 0.005 Ω

A galvanometer has a coil resistance of 50.0 Ω and a full scale current

of 1.0 mA. Convert this to a voltmeter reading 3.0 V full scale.

Finding the voltage: By law of series resistors:

V = IR IG + IS = 0.001 A
V = (0.001 A)(50Ω) VT = VG + VS
V = 0.05 V 3. 0 V = 0.05 V + VS
VS = 2.95 V
VS = ISRS
2.95 V = (0.001 A)RS
RS = 2950 Ω
 Electrical Power and Energy
The power expended in an appliance is the rate at which
it consumes electrical energy.
When you pay your electric bill, you pay for the electrical
energy consumption and not power.
Electrical energy consumption = Pt
A person used his 1500 W air-conditioning unit fro 5 hr
every day during the month of June. How much did
using his air conditioner cost him if electricity is priced
at P8.17 kWh?
Given:
P = 1500 W = 1.5 kW
t = (5 hr/day)(30 days) = 150 hr
Cost/kWh = P8.17/kWh

Cost = Pt(price/kWh)
= (1.5 kW)(150 hr)(8.17/kWh)
= 1838.25
 Electrical Power and Energy
The power expended in an appliance is the rate at which
it consumes electrical energy.
When you pay your electric bill, you pay for the electrical
energy consumption and not power.
Electrical energy consumption = Pt
A compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) uses less energy than its
equivalent incandescent bulb. How much will a person
save if he/she uses a 20 W CFL, instead of a 100 W
incandescent lamp for 6hr in 30 days? Electricity is
priced at P8.17 kWh?
20 W CFL 100 W incandescent bulb
Cost = Pt(price/kWh) Cost = Pt(price/kWh)
= (0.02kW)(180 hr)(8.17/kWh) = (0.1kW)(180 hr)(8.17/kWh)
= 29.412 = 147.06

Savings
Cost = Pt(price/kWh)
= (0.08kW)(180 hr)(8.17/kWh)
= 117.648
 Household Electricity
Household circuitry consists of several circuits connected
parallel to the main line. Adding appliances
decreases total resistance. Too large current may
cause overloading.
 Household Electricity
A kitchen circuit wired to 220 V is protected by a 15 A fuse.
Can a 1100 W microwave oven, 1200 W electric stove,
and a 500 W rice cooker be used simultaneously? What is
the resistance of each appliance? What is the current
drawn by each?
Solving for current:
Finding the total power:
P = VI
P = 1100 W + 1200 W + 500 W
2800 W = (220 V)I
P = 2800 W
I = 12.7A
Resistance by the oven: Current drawn by the oven:
1100 W = (220 V)^2(R) I = V/R
R = 44 Ω I = 220/44 Ω = 5 A
Resistance by the stove: Current drawn by the stove:
1200 W = (220 V)^2(R) I = V/R
R = 40.33 Ω I = 220/40.33 Ω = 5.45 A
Resistance by the rice cooker:Current drawn by the rice cooker:
500 W = (220 V)^2(R) I = V/R
R = 96.8 Ω I = 220/96.8 Ω = 2.28 A
Effect of Current on the Human Body
The effect of current depends on the
amount electric current that flows,
time of exposure and the path taken
by the current.