UNIT I ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS & MEASURMENTS

1.1 Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the potential difference or voltage across the two points, and inversely proportional to the resistance between them. I= V/R The mathematical equation that describes this relationship is:
I= V/R [2]

where I is the current through the resistance in units of amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the resistance in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the current.[3] The law was named after the German physicist Georg Ohm, who, in a treatise published in 1827, described measurements of applied voltage and current through simple electrical circuits containing various lengths of wire. He presented a slightly more complex equation than the one above (see History section below) to explain his experimental results. The above equation is the modern form of Ohm's law. In physics, the term Ohm's law is also used to refer to various generalizations of the law originally formulated by Ohm. The simplest example of this is: J= E where J is the current density at a given location in a resistive material, E is the electric field at that location, and is a material dependent parameter called the conductivity. This reformulation of Ohm's law is due to Gustav Kirchhoff.[4]
1.2. KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS 1.2.1 KIRCHOFF'S CURRENT LAW

It states that the algebraic sum of all currents entering a node is zero. Mathematically: Into a node Currents are positive if entering a node Currents are negative if leaving a node. Example: Applying Kirchhoff's current law:

I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 = 0 (the negative sign in I2 indicates that I2 has a magnitude of 3A and is flowing in the direction opposite to that indicated by the arrow) Substituting: 5 - 3 + I3 + 2 = 0

Therefore, I3 = - 4A

(ie 4A leaving node)

1.2.2

KIRCHHOFF'S VOLTAGE LAW

It states that the algebraic sum of the voltage drops around any loop, open or closed, is zero.

10- 2I - 3I = 0 - 2I and - 3I are negative, since they are voltage drops i.e. represent a decrease in potential on proceeding round the loop in the direction of I. For the same reason + 10V is positive as it is a voltage rise or increase in potential. Concluding: 5 I = 10 Therefore, I = 2A SERIES CONNECTION OF RESISTORS:

Common Current = I = V1 / R1 = V2 / R2 = V3 / R3 = ( V1 + V2 + V3 )/ ( R1 + R2 + R3 ) = VT / RS As VT = V1 + V2 + V3 Therefore, RS = R1 + R2 + R3

RS is an equivalent resistor that has the same voltage across it, and the current through it as that through the 3 resistors in series.

Example

Total Resistance = 6 + 8 = 14 PARALLEL CONNECTION OF RESISTORS Common Voltage: V = I1 R1 = I2 R2 = I3 R3 = IT RP

As IT = I1 + I2 + I3

Then, V/RP = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3

Therefore, 1/RP = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 , or, GP = G1 + G2 + G3 Where, RP is the equivalent resistor, and GP the equivalent conductance (often useful in parallel circuits). For 2 resistors, 1/RP = 1/R1 + 1/R2 = (R2 + R1 )/R1R2 ie. RP = (R1R2)/(R1 + R2) Example:

DC Circuit Analysis
In this chapter, capacitors and inductors will be introduced (without considering the effects of AC current.) The big thing to understand about Capacitors and Inductors in DC Circuits is that they have a transient (temporary) response. During the transient period, capacitors build up charge and stop the flow of current (eventually acting like infinite resistors.) Inductors build up energy in the form of magnetic fields, and become more conductive. In other words, in the steady-state (long term behavior), capacitors become open circuits and inductors become short circuits. Thus, for DC analysis, you can replace a capacitor with an empty space and an inductor with a wire. The only circuit components that remain are voltage sources, current sources, and resistors.

Capacitors and Inductors at DC

DC steady-state (meaning the circuit has been in the same state for a long time), we've seen that capacitors act like open circuits and inductors act like shorts. The above figures show the process of replacing these circuit devices with their DC equivalents. In this case, all that remains is a voltage source and a lone resistor. (An AC analysis of this circuit can be found in the AC section.)

Resistors
If a circuits contains only resistors possibly in a combination of parallel and series connections then an equivalent resistance is determined. Then Ohm's Law is used to determine the current flowing in the main circuit. A combination of voltage and current divider rules are then used to solve for other required currents and voltages.

Simplify the following:

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 1: Simple circuits series circuits. The circuit in Figure 1 (a) is very simple if we are given R and V, the voltage of the source, then we use Ohm's Law to solve for the current. In Figure 1 (b) if we are given R1, R2 and V then we combine the resistor into an equivalent resistors noting that are in series. Then we solve for the current as before using Ohm's Law. In Figure 1 (c) if the resistors are labeled clockwise from the top resistor R1, R2 and R3 and the voltage source has the value: V. The analysis procedes as follows.

This is the formula for calculating the equivalent resistance of series resistor. The current is now calculated using Ohm's Law.

If the voltage is required across the third resistor then we can use voltage divider rule.

Or alternatively one could use Ohm's Law together with the current just calculated.

(a) Figure 2: Simple parallel circuits.

(b)

In Figure 2 (a) if the Resistor nearest the voltage source is R1 and the other resistor R2. If we need to solve for the current i. Then we precede as before first we calculate the equivalent resistance then use Ohm's Law to solve for the current. The resistance of a parallel combination is:

So the current, i, flowing in the circuit is, by Ohm's Law:

If we need to solve for current through R2 then we can use current divider rule.

(1) But it would probably have been simpler to have used the fact that V most be dropped across R2. This means that we can simply use Ohm's Law to calculate the current through R2. The equation is just equation 1. In Figure 2 (b) we do exactly the same thing except this time there are three resistors this means that the equivalent resistance will be:

Using this fact we do exactly the same thing.

(a) Figure 3: Combined parallel and series circuits

(b)

(c)

In Figure 3 (a), if the three resistors in the outer loop of the circuit are R1, R2 and R3 and the other resistor is R4. It is simpler to see what is going on if we combine R2 and R3 into their series equivalent resistance R23. It is clear now that the equivalent resistance is R1 in series with the parallel combination of R23 and R4. If we want to calculate the voltage across the parallel combination of R4 and R23 then we just use voltage divider.

If we want to calculate the current through R2 and R3 then we can use the voltage across R4 | | (R2 + R3) and Ohm's law.

Or we could calculate the current in the main circuit and then use current divider rule to get the current. In Figure 3 (b) we take the same approach simplifying parallel combinations and series combinations of resistors until we get the equivalent resistance. In Figure 3 (c) this process doesn't work then because there are resistors connected in a delta this means that there is no way to simplify this beyond transforming them to a star or wye connection. Note: To calculate the current draw from the source the equivalent resistance always must be calculated. But if we just need the voltage across a series resistor this may be necessary. If we want to calculate the current in parallel combination then we must use either current divider rule or calculate the voltage across the resistor and then use Ohm's law to get the current. The second method will often require less work since the current flowing from the source is required for the use of current divider rule. The use of current divider rule is much simpler in the case when the source is a current source because the value of the current is set by the current source. Star Network The above image shows three points 1, 2, and 3 connected with resistors R1, R2, and R3 with a common point. Such a configuration is called a star network or a Y-connection.

The above image shows three points 1, 2, and 3 connected with resistosr R12, R23, and R31. The configuration is called a delta network or delta connection.

We have seen that the series and parallel networks can be reduced by the use of simple equations. Now we will derive similar relations to convert a star network to delta and vice versa. Consider the points 1 and 2. The resistance between them in the star case is simply R1 + R2 For the delta case, we have R12 || (R31 + R23) We have similar relations for the points 2, 3 and 3, 1. Making the substitution r1= R23 etc., we have, simplifying,

in the most general case. If all the resistances are equal, then R = r/3. Rms value

In mathematics, the root mean square (abbreviated RMS or rms), also known as the quadratic mean, is a statistical measure of the magnitude of a varying quantity. It is especially useful when variates are positive and negative, e.g., sinusoids. RMS is used in various fields, including electrical engineering; one of the more prominent uses of RMS is in the field of signal amplifiers. It can be calculated for a series of discrete values or for a continuously varying function. The name comes from the fact that it is the square root of the mean of the squares of the values. It is a special case of the generalized mean with the exponent p = 2. Waveforms So far we know that AC voltage alternates in polarity and AC current alternates in direction. We also know that AC can alternate in a variety of different ways, and by tracing the alternation over time we can plot it as a waveform. We can measure the rate of alternation by measuring the time it takes for a wave to evolve before it repeats itself (the period), and express this as cycles per unit time, or frequency. In music, frequency is the same as pitch, which is the essential property distinguishing one note from another. However, we encounter a measurement problem if we try to express how large or small an AC quantity is. With DC, where quantities of voltage and current are generally stable, we have little trouble expressing

how much voltage or current we have in any part of a circuit. But how do you grant a single measurement of magnitude to something that is constantly changing? One way to express the intensity, or magnitude (also called the amplitude), of an AC quantity is to measure its peak height on a waveform graph. This is known as the peak or crest value of an AC waveform: Figure below

Peak voltage of a waveform.

Another way is to measure the total height between opposite peaks. This is known as the peak-to-peak (PP) value of an AC waveform: Figure below

Peak-to-peak voltage of a waveform.

Unfortunately, either one of these expressions of waveform amplitude can be misleading when comparing two different types of waves. For example, a square wave peaking at 10 volts is obviously a greater amount of voltage for a greater amount of time than a triangle wave peaking at 10 volts. The effects of these two AC voltages powering a load would be quite different.
1.3 Electric Power A considerable part of electrical technology is concerned with the transmission of power, so it is appropriate to take a quick look at the basic relations here. In an electric circuit: Power, P = v.i. watts

Power is the rate of doing work, or the rate of change of energy in a system, i.e.

P= dt/dW
Where: W: energy or work for an electrical system in joules:

POWER FACTOR

The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the ratio of the real power flowing to the load to the apparent power in the circuit,[1][2] and is a dimensionless number between 0 and 1 (frequently expressed as a percentage, e.g. 0.5 pf = 50% pf). Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular time. Apparent power is the product of the current and voltage of the circuit. Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power will be greater than the real power. In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current than a load with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power transferred. The higher currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system, and require larger wires and other equipment. Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical utilities will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers where there is a low power factor.

THREE PHASE BALANCED CIRCUITS

Three-phase Y and Delta configurations

Initially we explored the idea of three-phase power systems by connecting three voltage sources together in what is commonly known as the Y (or star) configuration. This configuration of voltage sources is characterized by a common connection point joining one side of each source. (Figure below)

Three-phase Y connection has three voltage sources connected to a common point. If we draw a circuit showing each voltage source to be a coil of wire (alternator or transformer winding) and do some slight rearranging, the Y configuration becomes more obvious in Figure below.

Three-phase, four-wire Y connection uses a "common" fourth wire. The three conductors leading away from the voltage sources (windings) toward a load are typically called lines, while the windings themselves are typically called phases. In a Y-connected system, there may or may not (Figure below) be a neutral wire attached at the junction point in the middle, although it certainly helps alleviate potential problems should one element of a three-phase load fail open, as discussed earlier.

Three-phase, three-wire Y connection does not use the neutral wire.

When we measure voltage and current in three-phase systems, we need to be specific as to where we're measuring. Line voltage refers to the amount of voltage measured between any two line conductors in a balanced three-phase system. With the above circuit, the line voltage is roughly 208 volts. Phase voltage refers to the voltage measured across any one component (source winding or load impedance) in a balanced three-phase source or load. For the circuit shown above, the phase voltage is 120 volts. The terms line current and phase current follow the same logic: the former referring to current through any one line conductor, and the latter to current through any one component. Y-connected sources and loads always have line voltages greater than phase voltages, and line currents equal to phase currents. If the Y-connected source or load is balanced, the line voltage will be equal to the phase voltage times the square root of 3:

However, the Y configuration is not the only valid one for connecting three-phase voltage source or load elements together. Another configuration is known as the Delta, for its geometric resemblance to the Greek letter of the same name (). Take close notice of the polarity for each winding in Figure below.

Three-phase, three-wire connection has no common.

At first glance it seems as though three voltage sources like this would create a short-circuit, electrons flowing around the triangle with nothing but the internal impedance of the windings to hold them back. Due to the phase angles of these three voltage sources, however, this is not the case. One quick check of this is to use Kirchhoff's Voltage Law to see if the three voltages around the loop add up to zero. If they do, then there will be no voltage available to push current around and around that loop, and consequently there will be no circulating current. Starting with the top winding and progressing counter-clockwise, our KVL expression looks something like this:

Indeed, if we add these three vector quantities together, they do add up to zero. Another way to verify the fact that these three voltage sources can be connected together in a loop without resulting in circulating currents is to open up the loop at one junction point and calculate voltage across the break: (Figure below)

Voltage across open should be zero. Starting with the right winding (120 V 120o) and progressing counter-clockwise, our KVL equation looks like this:

Sure enough, there will be zero voltage across the break, telling us that no current will circulate within the triangular loop of windings when that connection is made complete. Having established that a -connected three-phase voltage source will not burn itself to a crisp due to circulating currents, we turn to its practical use as a source of power in three-phase circuits. Because each pair of line conductors is connected directly across a single winding in a circuit, the line voltage will be equal to the phase voltage. Conversely, because each line conductor attaches at a node between two windings, the line current will be the vector sum of the two joining phase currents. Not surprisingly, the resulting equations for a configuration are as follows:

Let's see how this works in an example circuit: (Figure below)

The load on the source is wired in a . With each load resistance receiving 120 volts from its respective phase winding at the source, the current in each phase of this circuit will be 83.33 amps:

So each line current in this three-phase power system is equal to 144.34 amps, which is substantially more than the line currents in the Y-connected system we looked at earlier. One might wonder if we've lost all the advantages of three-phase power here, given the fact that we have such greater conductor currents, necessitating thicker, more costly wire. The answer is no. Although this circuit would require three number 1 gage copper conductors (at 1000 feet of distance between source and load this equates to a little over 750 pounds of copper for the whole system), it is still less than the 1000+ pounds of copper required for a single-phase system delivering the same power (30 kW) at the same voltage (120 volts conductor-toconductor). One distinct advantage of a -connected system is its lack of a neutral wire. With a Y-connected system, a neutral wire was needed in case one of the phase loads were to fail open (or be turned off), in order to

keep the phase voltages at the load from changing. This is not necessary (or even possible!) in a connected circuit. With each load phase element directly connected across a respective source phase winding, the phase voltage will be constant regardless of open failures in the load elements. Perhaps the greatest advantage of the -connected source is its fault tolerance. It is possible for one of the windings in a -connected three-phase source to fail open (Figure below) without affecting load voltage or current!

Even with a source winding failure, the line voltage is still 120 V, and load phase voltage is still 120 V. The only difference is extra current in the remaining functional source windings. The only consequence of a source winding failing open for a -connected source is increased phase current in the remaining windings. Compare this fault tolerance with a Y-connected system suffering an open source winding in Figure below.

Open Y source winding halves the voltage on two loads of a connected load.

With a -connected load, two of the resistances suffer reduced voltage while one remains at the original line voltage, 208. A Y-connected load suffers an even worse fate (Figure below) with the same winding failure in a Y-connected source

Open source winding of a "Y-Y" system halves the voltage on two loads, and looses one load entirely. In this case, two load resistances suffer reduced voltage while the third loses supply voltage completely! For this reason, -connected sources are preferred for reliability. However, if dual voltages are needed (e.g. 120/208) or preferred for lower line currents, Y-connected systems are the configuration of choice.

REVIEW: The conductors connected to the three points of a three-phase source or load are called lines. The three components comprising a three-phase source or load are called phases. Line voltage is the voltage measured between any two lines in a three-phase circuit. Phase voltage is the voltage measured across a single component in a three-phase source or load. Line current is the current through any one line between a three-phase source and load. Phase current is the current through any one component comprising a three-phase source or load. In balanced Y circuits, line voltage is equal to phase voltage times the square root of 3, while line current is equal to phase current.

In balanced circuits, line voltage is equal to phase voltage, while line current is equal to phase current times the square root of 3.

-connected three-phase voltage sources give greater reliability in the event of winding failure than Y-connected sources. However, Y-connected sources can deliver the same amount of power with less line current than -connected sources.

Working of dynamometer type wattmeter

The principle of operation of the electrodynamometer-type wattmeter is the same as that for dynamo-electric machines. The deflection torque is produced by the interaction of two magnetic fluxes. One of the fluxes is produced by a fixed coil which carries a current proportional to the load current and therefore called the current coil. The other flux is created by a movable coil which carries a current proportional to the load voltage and thus called the voltage or potential coil. A high non-inductive resistance is connected to the potential coil so that its current is almost in phase with the load voltage. The control torque is provided by a control spring. In a dynamometer type wattmeter the fixed coil (current coil) is connected in series with the load.This coil is divided in to two parts and they are kept parallel to each other. The coil is thick in cross section and has less number of turns.The moving coil (pressure coil) is connected across the load. It is thin in cross - section and has hundreds of turns. It has a non - inductive high resistance in series with it

The wattmeter is an electrodynamic instrument for measuring the electric power or the supply rate of electrical energy of any given circuit. The device consists of a pair of fixed coils, known as current coils, and a movable coil known as the potential coil. The current coils are connected in series with the circuit, while the potential coil is connected in parallel. Also, on analog wattmeters, the potential coil carries a needle that moves over a scale to indicate the measurement. A current flowing through the current coil generates an electromagnetic field around the coil. The strength of this field is proportional to the line current and in phase with it. The potential coil has, as a general rule, a high-value resistor connected in series with it to reduce the current that flows through it. The result of this arrangement is that on a dc circuit, the deflection of the needle is proportional to both the current and the voltage, thus conforming to the equation W=VA or P=EI. On an ac circuit the deflection is proportional to the average instantaneous product of voltage and current, thus measuring true power, and possibly (depending on load characteristics) showing a different reading to that obtained by simply multiplying the readings showing on a stand-alone voltmeter and a stand-alone ammeter in the same circuit. The two circuits of a wattmeter are likely to be damaged by excessive current. The ammeter and voltmeter are both vulnerable to overheating - in case of an overload, their pointers will be driven off scale - but in the wattmeter, either or even both the current and potential circuits can overheat without the pointer approaching the end of the scale! This is because the position of the pointer depends on the power factor, voltage and current. Thus, a circuit with a low power factor will give a low reading on the wattmeter, even when both of its circuits are loaded to the maximum safety limit. Therefore, a wattmeter is rated not only in watts, but also in volts and amperes.

ENERGY METER

An energy meter is essentially the same as a wattmeter except that, the energy meter must take into account the time duration of supply of this power. Thus energy meters are integrating instruments and do not indicate the power directly. Principle The operation of the induction type energy meter is based on the passage of alternating current through two coils (current coil and pressure coil). This coils produce the rotating magnetic field which interacts with a aluminium disc suspended near to the coils and makes the disc rotates. The current coil carries the line current and develops magnetic field. This magnetic field is in phase with the line current. The pressure coil in the highly inductive hence the current passes through it lags behind the supply voltage by 90. Therefore, a phase difference of 90 exists between the fluxes developed by two coils. Due to this, a rotating field which interacts with the disc to rotate. 'A single phase induction type energy meter consists of moving system, operating mechanism and recording mechanism.

Moving System The moving system consists of a thin aluminium disc fixed on a vertical spindle. The spindle is supported by a cup-shaped jewelled bearing at the bottom end. It has a spring at the top end. There is no pointer and control spring hence the disc makes continuous rotation under the action of deflecting torque. Operating Mechanism The operating mechanism consists ofthree megnets. Series magnet Shunt magnet Braking magnet Series magnet This magnet is denoted as M. This magnet is connected in series with load. Therefore it carries the load current. It is the U-shaped lamined core. A thick wire consisting few turns, is wound on both lags of the magnet M. This coil is current coil. The series magnet produces magnetic field proportional to the load current.

Shunt magnet This magnet is denoted as N. It is the M-shaped laminated core. It consists of more number oftums and thin wire. It is wound on the middle limb of the magnet. The coil is known as pressure coil or voltage coil. It is connected across the supply or load. It carries the current proportional to the supply voltage. The figure shows the diagram of a single phase energy meter.

A copper shading ring R, also known as the power factor compensator is provided in the central limb of the shunt magnet. This helps to achieve exactly 90 phase displacement between the flux produced in shunt magnet and the voltage across the shunt magnet. Braking magnet A permanent magnet, called braking magnet is positioned near the edge of the disc and provide the braking torque. Recording mechanism The number of revolution of the disc is a measure of the electrical energy flowing through the meter and is recorded on dials which are geared to the shaft. Operation The energy meter is connected in the given circuit to measure the electrical energy. The current coil carries the load current. It produce the magnetic field and is in phase with the line current. The pressure coil carries current proportional to the supply voltage. The magnetic field due to pressure coil lags approximately 90 behind the supply voltage. lne current coil magnetic field develops eddy currents in the aluminium disc which react with magnetic field due to the pressure coil. Thus a torque is developed in the disc then it rotates. The braking magnet is produced the braking torque on the disc. The spindle is geared to the recording mechanism so that the electrical energy consumed in the circuit is directly given in kWh (kilo watt hour).

Advantages I. Simple in operation. High torque / weight ratio. Cheap in cost. Unaffected by temperature variations.

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