Intersections

Dr. Hana Naghawi

Dr. Hana Naghawi 1

 Intersections
• An intersection is an area, shared by two
or more roads, whose main function is
to provide for the change of route
directions.
• Main function is to provide for change of
direction
• Intersections vary in complexity from:
– simple intersection: has only two roads crossing
at a right angle
– complex intersection: three or more roads cross
within the same area.
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 Intersections
• Drivers therefore have to make a decision at an
intersection concerning which of the alternative
routes they wish to take.
• Intersections tend to have a high potential for
crashes.
• Source of congestion in urban areas
• The overall traffic flow on any highway depends
to a great extent on the performance of the
intersections
• since intersections usually operate
at a lower capacity than through
sections of the road.

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 Design Objectives
“To reduce the severity of potential conflicts
between motor vehicles, pedestrians, and facilities
while facilitating the convenience, ease, and
comfort of people traversing the intersection.”
AASHTO
Provide ease/control of access consistent with the
function of intersecting roadways

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 Intersections
Grade separated with ramps (freeway interchange)

Interchanges --Grade separated without ramps

(over or underpass with no access)
usually consist of structure that provide for
traffic to cross at different levels ( vertical
distance) without interruption

At-grade
Conventional
Roundabouts
New concepts/unconventional (e.g., Superstreet)
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Basic Forms of Intersections

T Y
Scissors

Cross Staggered

Staggered and skewed multiway

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Grade Separated Intersections

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Grade Separated Intersections

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 At-grade intersections types
The basic types of at-grade intersections are:
• T or three-leg intersections which consist of
three approaches
• four-leg or cross intersections, which consist
of four approaches
• and multi-leg intersections, which consist of
five or more approaches

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At-Grade Intersections

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 At-grade intersections types
Conflict Points at Intersections
 Conflicts occur when traffic streams moving in
different directions interfere with each other.
 Three types of conflicts:
 merging,
 diverging,
 crossing.

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 At-grade intersections types
 For four-approach unsignalized intersection.
There are 32 conflict points in this case.
 Crossing conflicts, however, tend to have the
most severe effect on traffic flow and should be
reduced to a minimum whenever possible.
 The number of possible conflict points at any
intersection depends on:
 the number of approaches,
 the turning movements, and
 the type of traffic control at the intersection.
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 At-grade intersections types

Conflict points at a T-Intersection

9 conflict points:
3 crossing
3 merging
3 diverging

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 T Intersections
•The simple T intersection is suitable for
minor or local roads and may be used
when minor roads intersect important
highways.
•also suitable for use in rural
two-lane highways that carry light traffic.

•At locations with higher speeds and

turning volumes, which increase the
potential of rear-end crashes between
through vehicles and turning vehicles
•usually an additional area of
surfacing or flaring is provided
•the flare is provided to separate right-
turning vehicles from through vehicles
approaching from the east. Dr. Hana Naghawi 14
•In cases where left-turn
volume from a through
road onto a minor road is
sufficiently high but does
not require a separate left-
turn lane, an auxiliary lane
may be provided

•Channelization involves the provision of facilities such as

pavement markings and traffic islands to regulate and direct
conflicting traffic streams into specific travel paths.
•intersection of this type probably will be signalized
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 Four-Leg Intersections
•Used mainly at locations
where minor or local roads
cross
•It also can be used where a
minor road crosses a major
highway.
•In these cases, the turning
volumes are usually low
and the roads intersect at an
angle that is not greater than
30 degrees from the normal.

Unchannelized Intersection

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 Four-Leg Intersections

•When right-turning
movements are frequent,
right-turning roadways,
can be provided.
•also common where
pedestrians are present

Channelized Intersection

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 Four-Leg Intersections

This layout is suitable for:

a two lane highway that is
not a minor crossroad and that
carries moderate volumes at Channelized Intersection
high speeds or operates near
capacity.

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Four-Leg Intersections

Channelized Intersection

•This layout is suitable design for four-lane approaches

carrying high through volumes and high turning volumes.
•This type of intersection is usually signalized
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 Multi-leg Intersections
• Multi-leg intersections have five or more
approaches.
• This type of intersection should be avoided in order
to remove some of the conflicting movements from
the major intersection and increase safety and
operation and that by using realigned
• When we realigned a road or convert it to a road two
factor must be consider :
– Should be realigned to minor road
– The distance between the intersections should be such
that they can operate independently
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 Multi-leg Intersections

In order to:
remove some of the
conflicting movements and
increase safety and
operation, one or more of
the legs are realigned.

•This results in the formation of an additional T intersection

•The multi-leg intersection is now converted to a four-leg
intersection.
•two important factors to consider:
•the diagonal road should be realigned to the minor
road
•the distance between the intersections 21
 Multi-leg Intersections
•realignment of a six-
leg intersection
•forming two four-leg
intersections.
•realignment to be
made to the minor road.
•forming two additional
T intersections and
resulting in a total of
three intersections

•the distances between these intersections should be great

enough to allow for the independent operation of each
intersection Dr. Hana Naghawi 22
 Design principles for intersections
Recall that:
The fundamental objective in the design is to
minimize the severity or potential conflict
among traffic streams and between
pedestrians and turning vehicles

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 Design principles for intersections
the design of intersections involves:
• Alignment design
• A suitable channeling system
• Determine width of turning roadways for
traffic pattern
• Assurance of sight distance

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 Alignment of intersection
• The best alignment for the intersection when the
intersecting roads meet at right angle or nearly
right angle
Why ???

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Alignment of intersection

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 Profile of intersections
• Where possible large change in grade should be
avoided (not grater than 3%)
stopping & acceleration distances (on grade 3% or less)
not much different from flat grade.

• In any case it is not advisable to use grade higher 6

percent at intersections.

• When it is necessary to adjust the grade lines of the

approaches at an intersection, it is preferable that the
grade line of the major highway be continued across
the intersection and that of the minor road be altered
to obtain the desired result (smooth junction and
proper drainage , clear traffic). 27
 Intersections curves
• Main factor for curve design
1. The angle of turn
2. Turning speed
3. Design vehicle
4. Traffic volume

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 Turning speed
• There are three types of design criteria commonly used
when turning speeds are 15 mph or less
1. the simple curve (an arc of a circular curve)
2. the simple curve with taper
3. the three-centered compound curve (three simple curves
joined together and turning in the same direction).
• The following figures are for PC design vehicle
• Use tables and figure for different D.V
• When the turning speed at an intersection is greater
than 15 mph, the expected turning speed is used to
determine the minimum radius required
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 The simple curve
The inner radius of
edge pavement (solid
line) should not be less
than 25 ft, This design
will provide for a
clearance of
about 8" near the end
of the arc.

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 The simple curve with taper

this a simple curve

with tapers of 1:10 at
each end and an
offset of 2.5 ft. In this
case, it is feasible to
use the lower radius
of 20 ft.

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 The three-centered compound curve
• This type of curve is
composed of three circular
curves of radii of 100,
20,and 100 ft, including the
2.5 ft offset, from the
tangent edges
• This design is preferable to
the simple curve because it
provides for a smoother
transition and because the
resulting edge of the
pavement fits the design
vehicle path more closely.
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 Intersection Channelization
• It’s defined as separation of conflicting traffic
movements into definite paths of travel by
traffic islands or pavement marking to
facilitate the safe and orderly movements of
vehicles and pedestrians

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 Channelization
• Island :It is a defined area between traffic
lanes that is used to regulate movements of
vehicles or serve as a pedestrian refuge.
• Good channelization increase the capacity ,
safety and driver confidence where bad
channelization have an opposite effect
• Note that overchannelization creates
confusion

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 Channelization
• Factors affecting channelization:
1. Availability of right of way
2. Terrain
3. Type of design vehicle
4. Cross sections of cross roads
5. Approach speed
6. Bus-stop requirement

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 Island
Can be formed using:
1. Curbed traffic island
2. Pavement marking
3. Pavement edge

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 Curbed Island
Form by construction of a concrete curb that
defines the area of island
1. Mountable: constructed with their face
inclined at an angle 45 degrees or less
2. Barrier: usually vertical

Curbed island may be difficult to see at

night so it necessary to have fixed-source
for lighting
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 Island (pavement marking )
• Sometimes referred to as flushed island
because it is flushed with the pavement
• Formed by marking the defined area of the
island
• Preferred over curbed islands at intersections
where approach speeds are relatively high and
pedestrian traffic low

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 Island (pavement edge)
• These islands are usually unpaved and are
mainly used at rural intersections where there
is space for large intersection curves

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Island

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 Island
classified based on their function:
1. Channelized :mainly used to control and
direct traffic
2. Divisional : mainly used to divide opposing
or same-directional traffic streams
3. Refuge : used primarily to provide refuge for
pedestrians

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Island

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 Island (Minimum size of island)
• AASHTO recommends that curbed islands have a
minimum area of approximately 50 sq ft for urban
intersections ( 75 sq ft for rural), although 100 sq ft
is preferable for both

• The minimum side lengths recommended are 12 ft

(but preferably 15 ft) for triangular islands

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 Minimum Pavement Widths of Turning
Roadway Intersections
Three classifications of pavement widths are
used:
1. Case I: one-lane, one-way operation with no
provision for passing a stopped vehicle

2. Case II: one-lane, one-way operation with

provision for passing a stopped vehicle

3. Case III: two-lane operation, either one-way

or two-way

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 Minimum Pavement Widths of Turning
Roadway Intersections
• Case I is used mainly at relatively short
connecting roads with moderate turning
volumes.
• Case II, which provides for the passing of a
stopped vehicle, is commonly used at
locations where ramps intersect with local
roads and at channelized intersections.
• Case III is used at one-way, high-volume
locations that require two-lanes or at two-way
locations.

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 Minimum Pavement Widths of Turning
Roadway Intersections
• The pavement width depends:
1. Widths of the front and rear overhanges (FA,FB)
2. Total clearance per vehicle (C)
3. Extra width allowance due to difficulty of driving on
curves (Z)
4. Track width (U) of the vehicle as it moves around
the curve

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Minimum Pavement Widths of Turning
Roadway Intersections

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Minimum Pavement Widths of Turning
Roadway Intersections

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Widths of the front and rear overhanges
(FA,FB)

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 Total clearance per vehicle (C)
• The pavement width provides for some lateral
clearance both between the edge of the
pavement and the nearest wheel path and
between the sides of the vehicles passing or
meeting.
• AASHTO suggests that the total clearance per
vehicle be taken as 4 ft for Case I, 2 ft for the
stopped vehicle and 2 ft for the passing vehicle
in Case II and 4 ft for Case III.
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 An extra width allowance (Z)
• It’s provided to compensate for the difficulty of
maneuvering on a curve and for variation in driver
operation. It is obtained from the empirical
expression:

Where:
Z = extra width allowance to compensate for the
difficulty in maneuvering (ft)
v = design speed (mi/h)
R =radius of curve (ft)
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 Track width (U) of the vehicle
• The track width U for passenger cars and single-
unit trucks is given as:

where
U =track width on curve (ft)
u =track width on tangent (out-to-out of tires) (ft)
R =radius of curve or turn (ft)
Li =wheelbase of design vehicle between
consecutive axles or (sets of tandem axles) and
articulation points (ft)
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 Minimum Pavement Widths of Turning
Roadway Intersections
• The following table gives values for the
required pavement widths for different design
vehicles.

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 Minimum Pavement Widths of Turning
Roadway Intersections
 The design of the pavement width based on three types of
traffic conditions, each concerning a specific mix of vehicle
types:

1. Traffic Condition A: Passenger vehicles is the design vehicle

2. Traffic Condition B: Proportion of SU vehicles warrants this

vehicle type to be the design vehicle but it allows for the
accommodation of some tractor-trailer combination trucks (5 to
10%)

3. Traffic Condition C: Proportion of tractor-semitrailer

combination trucks WB-12 or WB-15 (WB-40 or WB-50)
vehicles in the traffic stream warrants one of these vehicle
types to be the design vehicle
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Dr. Hana Naghawi
 Sight distance at intersections
• it is necessary to provide an adequate view of
the crossroads or intersecting highways to
reduce the potential of collision with crossing
vehicles.
• This requires an unobstructed triangular area
(sight triangle) that allows a clear view for
drivers on the minor and major roads to see
an approaching vehicle on the crossing road in
time to avoid a potential conflict

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 Sight distance at intersections

There are two

types of sight
triangles:
•approach sight
triangles and
•departure sight
triangles.

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Sight Distance Obstruction

Hidden Vehicle

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 Sight distance at intersections
• The approach sight triangle allows for the drivers
on both the major roads and minor roads to see
approaching intersecting vehicles in sufficient
time to avoid a potential crashes by reducing the
vehicle’s speed or by stopping.
• The decision point on a minor road of an
uncontrolled or yield control intersection is the
location where the minor road driver should start
his/her braking or deceleration maneuver to
avoid a potential conflict with an approaching
major road vehicle.
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 Sight distance at intersections
• The departure-sight triangle allows for the
driver of a stopped vehicle on the minor road
to enter or cross the major road without
conflicting with an approaching vehicle from
either direction of the major road.

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 Sight distance at intersections
the lengths of the legs of the sight triangle depend
on the type of control at the intersection.

At-grade intersections either have

1. no control (Case A)
2. stop control on the minor road (Case B)
3. yield control on the minor road (Case C)
4. traffic signal control (Case D)
5. all-way stop control (Case E).
6. the maneuver of left turns from the major road
(Case F).
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 NO control (Case A)
• Minimum sight triangle sides = distance
traveled in PRT and to actuate brake/accel.

• AASHTO recommend that PRT = 2.5 s

• AASHTO field observations have indicated

that drivers tend to decrease their speeds to
about 50 percent of their mid-block speed as
they approach intersections that have no
control.
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 NO control (Case A)

Can use table

or graph

Modify for grade

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 NO control (Case A)

Critical speed is set to stopping distance db = a __da__

65
da - b
Example
Large
Tree 25 mph
72’

47’

45 mph

Is sufficient stopping sight distance

provided?
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 Example
Large 25 mph
Tree
b = 72’
db

a = 47’

45 mph da

db = a __da__
da - b

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da = 200 feet

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 Example
Large 25 mph
Tree
b = 72’
db

a = 47’

45 mph da

da = 200 feet
db = a __da__ = 47’ (200’) = 73’
da – b 200’ – 72’
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db = 73 feet
corresponds to 15-20
mph Dr. Hana Naghawi 70
 Example
Large 25 mph
Tree
b = 72’
db

a = 47’

45 mph da

25 mph > 15 mph, stopping sight

distance is not sufficient for 25
mph
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 Stop control on the minor road (Case B)

Three Sub Cases

• Turn left on to major roadway
• Turn right on to major roadway
• Crossing

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Stop control on the minor road (Case B)

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 Stop control on the minor road (Case B)

• The sight distance required for this maneuver

depends on the time the vehicle will take to
cross the intersection

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Stop control on the minor road (Case B1 /
left turn)

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Example
• A minor road intersects a major four-lane
undivided road with a design speed of 65
mph. The intersection is controlled with a stop
sign on the minor road. If the design vehicle is
a single-unit truck, determine the minimum
sight distance required on the major road that
will allow a stopped vehicle on the minor road
to safely turn
left if the approach grade on the minor road is
2%.

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 Example
• Solution:
• • Determine tg.
-From Table tg = 9.5 sec (for a single unit truck)
-Correct for number of lanes:
tg = (9.5 + 0.7) sec 10.2 sec
(Note no adjustment is necessary for approach grade
as it is not higher than 3%.)

• • Determine minimum sight distance

=1.47×65×10.2= 974.61 ft

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Stop control on the minor road (Case B)

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 Stop control on the minor road (Case B2 /
right turn)
• similar to that for left turns discussed for Case
left turn, but the values of the (tg) are
adjusted in consideration of the fact that
drivers tend to accept gaps that are slightly
lower than those for left turns.
• AASHTO suggests that values in (tg) Table
should be decreased by 1 second.

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80
 Stop control on the minor road (Case B3 /
crossing)
• Minimum requirements determined for right and
left turns as presented for Cases B1 and B2 will
usually satisfy the requirements for the crossing
maneuver.
• AASHTO warrants

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 yield control on the minor road (Case C)
• The assumption made to determine the minimum sight
distance for this maneuver is similar to Case A but with
some modifications.

• Adequate sight distance on the major road therefore

should be provided for:
• crossing the intersection (Case C1)

• making right and left turns (Case C2).

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 crossing the intersection (Case C1)
• Drivers on minor roads approaching a yield
sign tend to decelerate to 60 percent of the
minor road design speed and not 50 percent
• The time tg to cross the intersection should
include the time taken for the vehicle to travel
from the decision point
• Cross and clear the intersection at the same
speed

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 Crossing the intersection (Case C1)
• Based on previous assumptions

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Crossing the intersection (Case C1)

85
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Crossing the intersection (Case C1)

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 Example
An urban two-lane minor road crosses a four-lane divided
highway with a speed limit of 55 mph. If the minor road has
a speed limit of 35 mph and the intersection is controlled by
a yield sign on the minor road, determine the sight distance
from the intersection that is required along the major road
such that the driver of a vehicle on the minor road can
safely cross the intersection. The following conditions exist
at the intersection.
• Major road lane width = 11 ft
• Median width = 8 ft
• Design vehicle on minor road is a passenger car length =
22 ft
• Approach grade on minor road =3%.

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Example

• Solution: Use this Equ. to determine time (ta)

as the travel time to reach and clear the
intersection.
• tg = ta + (w + La)/0.88vmin
ta = 5.2 sec for passenger vehicles from Table
w = ( 4 × 11+ 8) = 52 ft
• tg = 5.2 + (52+ 22)/(0.88 × 35) = 7.6 sec

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 Example

dISD =1.47 × 55 × 7.6 = 614.5 ft

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 making right and left turns (Case C2)
• it is assumed that a driver will reduce his/her
speed to about 10 mph.
• Based on this assumption, the length of the
minor road leg of the sight triangle is taken as
82 ft.
• The length of the major road leg is computed
using the same principles for the stopped
control of Case B1 and B2.

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 traffic signal control (Case D)
The two main requirements at signalized
intersections are:
1. the first vehicle stopped at the stop line of
each approach should be visible to the driver
of the first vehicle stopped on all other
approaches
2. adequate sight distance should be provided
for left-turning vehicles to enable drivers of
these vehicles to select adequate gaps.

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 all-way stop control (Case E).
The only sight distance required in this case is
that the first vehicle stopped at the stop line
of each approach should be visible to the
driver of the first vehicle stopped on all other
approaches.

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 the maneuver of left turns from the major
road (Case F).
• the turning vehicle is assumed to start its
turning movement from a stopped position

• Adequate sight distance along the major road

is the distance traveled by an oncoming
vehicle along the major road during the time it
takes the stopped vehicle to cross the major

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the maneuver of left turns from the major
road (Case F).

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