Week 9 – 10

CHAPTER 4 :

INTERSECTIONS
& TRAFFIC
CONTROL DEVICE

ECG 344
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

FKAUiTMPG/nadia2020 1
CONTENTS:
Learning Outcomes
1) PART A : At the end of the lesson, students should be
Types of Intersection : At able to
grade & grade separated 1. Describe with illustration various types of
intersections with intersection (at grade and grade separated).
illustration (CO1,P01)

2. Discuss on traffic control devices –

2) PART B channelization, signage and markings.
(CO1,P01)
Traffic Control Devices :
Traffic Signal, road sign
& marking, lighting 3. Design a simple traffic signal design using
requirement Webster Method. (CO1,P01)

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INTRODUCTION
• Geometric design of
transportation facilities
must provide for the
resolution of traffic
conflicts.
• Conflicts may be classified
as;
• Merging – vehicles enter
the traffic stream
• Diverging – vehicles
leave the traffic stream
• Weaving – vehicles cross
path by first merging &
then diverging
• Crossing – vehicles cross
path directly
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The number of Conflicts points How to Resolve “Crossing Conflict” ??
depends on;
Three basic ways of resolving crossing
conflicts:
• Time – sharing solutions
1. Number of approaches • allow right-of-way (priority) to particular
2. Number of lane on each movements at particular times. ex:
signalized intersection/ traffic signal
approach control
3. Type of signal control • Space – sharing solutions
• convert crossing conflicts into weaving
4. Extent of channelization conflicts. ex: traffic circles
/rotary/roundabout
5. Movement permitted • Grade separation solutions
• eliminate the crossing conflict by placing the
conflicting streams at different elevations.
ex: freeway interchanges & highway-
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railway grade separation
4
 PART A
INTERSECTION & INTERCHANGES
5
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INTERSECTION Important
principles to be
• An area shared by two or more roads considered in a
whose main function is to provide change good design?
in route locations is called an intersection.
• Aims ✓ Minimum no. of intersection
→ ensure efficiency of the operation ✓ Proper geometry layout so that hazardous
movements by drivers are eliminated
→ safety - reduce accident
✓ Design should permit the driver to discern quickly
→ speed - maintain design speed either from the layout or from traffic signs, the path
→ cost of operation - minimize cost to be following and the actions of merging and
diverging.
→ capacity - maximize capacity
✓ The layout should follow the natural paths.
✓ The number of conflict point should be minimized
by separating some of the crossing, merging and
diverging movements.
✓ Vehicles that are forced to wait in order to cross
traffic stream should be provided with adequate
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‘storage’ space at intersections.
 At grade
intersection

Types of
Intersections

Grade separated
intersection

Interchanges
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AT GRADE INTERSECTION Four basic elements are
• Types : T-type (3-leg), 4-leg (cross generally considered in the
section) and multi-leg intersection design:
• Intersecting road meets a common level.
Human factors – driving habits and
• Categorized based on its ability & decision-reaction times
management of traffic:
a) Uncontrolled junction – intersecting
roads have low traffic volume; hence the Traffic consideration – capacities, turning
arms are more or less equal importance. movements, vehicle speeds, and size and
b) Priority junction – involves major and
distribution of vehicles
minor road. Have STOP/GIVE WAY sign
c) Time sharing junction – traffic signal ; Physical elements – characteristics and
traffic stream share amount of time for use of abutting property, sight distance
their right of way (ROW). and geometric features
d) Space sharing junction – roundabout ;
traffic stream share space at the same
Economic factors – costs and benefits and
time. 8
energy consumption
AT-GRADE INTERSECTION

Basic types:
T / Y / 3 leg Intersection • T or three-leg intersections
• Cross or four-leg intersections
• Multi-leg intersections

9
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Types of T/Y or 3-Leg Intersections

a) Plain T Intersection
* for minor or local road
* for rural two-lane highways that
carry light traffic
b) T intersection (with left turn lane)
* locations with higher speeds & turning
volumes potential rear-ends collision
* add surfacing/flaring to separate
left-turning vehicles from
through vehicles 10
c) T intersection (with divisional island & right
passing lane)
* right-turn volume from through road onto
minor road is high.
* an auxiliary lane may be provided
* space for through vehicles to maneuver
around the right-turning vehicles.
d) T intersection with divisional island & turning
roadway
* channelized T intersection
* both left & right turn storage lane
* for locations where volumes are high
* will probably be signalized
11
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Types of cross or four-leg
intersections

a) Plain four-leg Intersection

* for minor or local road
* minor road crosses a major highway
* low turning volumes
b) Four-leg intersection (with left turn
roadway)
* turning volumes are frequent
* add divisional island
* common in suburban areas were
12
pedestrians are present
c) Four-leg intersection (with
divisional island)
* for a two-lane highway that
carries moderate volumes at high
speeds or operates near capacity

d) Four-leg intersection with divisional

island & turning roadway
* four-lane approaches
* carrying high through & turning
volumes
* usually signalized
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13
 Multileg Intersections
• Have five or more approaches
• Should be avoided

14
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 Intersection skew at
90 degrees.
(preferred)

Intersection skew at
75 degrees.(minimum)

15
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 GRADE SEPARATED INTERSECTION & INTERCHANGES

Where intersecting roads are at different

elevation
Purposes of Grade Separated:
❖To permit the cross flow of traffic at
different levels without interruption.
❖As part of expressway system
designed to carry volumes of traffic.
❖To eliminate bottlenecks
❖To prevent accident
❖Where the topography is not
suitable for other types of design
❖Where the volumes to be catered
❖Where the road benefit of reducing
delays at-grade intersections
TYPES OF SEPARATION STRUCTURES
OVERPASS
Deck type is the most suitable – may present
lateral and vertical clearance problems on
lower roadway but supports relative to upper
roadway are underneath & out of sight.

UNDERPASS
Most desirable structure from standpoint of
vehicular operation is one that will span the
entire highway & provide lateral clearance of
structure supports from edge of pavement –
consistent with design requirement
17
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TYPES OF INTERCHANGES:

THREE-LEG DESIGN
• T-type
• An intersection with three intersecting
legs
• Consisting of one or more grade
separation
• One-way roadways for all traffic
movement

• Y -type
• All three-intersection leg have through
character or intersection angle with the
third intersection leg is small
18
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 Trumpet interchange T-Type
near Arnhem, Netherlands

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FOUR-LEG DESIGN
• Ramps in one or two
quadrant

• Apply for intersection of

roads with low volume
• Single 2 ramps of
minimum design will
usually suffice for all
turning traffic.
20
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FOUR-LEG DESIGN

• Diamond
• Effective where traffic is light
& more expensive
interchanges type is not
needed.
• Used where freeway crosses
minor road.
• Used both in rural & urban
area.
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 A typical diamond interchange

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FOUR-LEG DESIGN

• Cloverleaf
• Used at very busy arterials
where signals could present
congestion problems
• 2 level interchange in which left
turn are handled by ramp
• Not require the used of device
such as traffic signal
• Disadvantage:
1. extra travel distance/weaving
2. manoeuver/expensive
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23
A typical cloverleaf interchange with collector/distributor roads

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 25
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2. FOUR-LEG DESIGN

• Directional
• used for important turning
movement to reduce travel
distance, increase speed, safety,
capacity & eliminate weaving.
• when direct connection are
design with two lanes, the ramp
capacity may approach the
capacity of equivalent number of
lanes on the through highways
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FKAUiTMPG/nadia2020 27
 Road/Traffic Circle
A circular intersection that provides a circular traffic pattern with
significant reduction in the crossing conflicts points.
• Types:
1. Rotaries
* large diameters greater than 300ft
* allowing speeds exceeding 48 km/h.
2. Neighborhood traffic circles
* much smaller than rotaries, lower speed
* used as traffic calming and/or as an aesthetic device
* consists of pavement marking rather than raised island. 28
Road/Traffic Circle

1. Rotaries

2. Neighborhood
traffic circles
 Road/Traffic Circle
3. Roundabouts.
Have specific characteristics:
• Yield control at each approach
• Roundabouts may be applicable for total traffic volume (sum of all directions) of up to 6000 vehicles/hour.
• Separation of conflicting traffic movements by pavement markings or raised islands.
• Parking usually not allowed within the circulating roadway.

30
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 Road/Traffic Circle
3. Roundabouts.
Disadvantages of Roundabouts
• The speed through the roundabout are reduced
because of the obstruction caused by the central
island.
• Require larger land space and capacity according
to the demand of each approach.
• When the capacity is exceeded, they also tend to
"lock up traffic". As such, roundabouts cater well
only for situation where the approaches have
similar level of traffic flow
• Roundabouts should only be provided where
there is problem in power supply to traffic
signals, or where the number and layout of
approach legs are not suitable for signal control.
31
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FKAUiTMPG/nadia2020 32
END OF
PART A

FKAUiTMPG/nadia2020 33
CHAPTER 4: PART B
TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES
 Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, students should

be able to;
1. Describe with illustration various
types of intersection (at grade and
grade separated). (CO1,P01)

2. Discuss on traffic control devices –

channelization, signage and
markings. (CO1,P01)

3. Design a simple traffic signal design

using Webster Method. (CO1,P01)
 Traffic Control Devices

•Purpose:
a) assign the right of way to drivers
b) facilitate highway safety by ensuring the orderly
and predictable movement of all traffic on highway.

•Control may be achieved by using traffic signals,

signs or markings that regulate, guide, warn and/or
channel traffic.

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•Guidelines are provided in the Manual on Uniform
Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD)

•To be effective, a traffic control device must

a) Fulfil a need
b) Command attention
c) Convey a clear simple meaning
d) Command the respect of road users
e) Give adequate time for proper response

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•To ensure that a traffic control device
possesses these five properties, the MUTCD
recommends that engineers consider the
following five factors:

a) Design – size, colour & shape

b) Placement – within the cone of vision
c) Operation - consistent
d) Maintenance – regularly maintained
e) Uniformity – similar devices.

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 Traffic Signs

Road Markings
Traffic Control
Device
Channelization

Traffic Signal
Traffic Control
System - Design traffic
signal

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 1. Traffic Signs
TRAFFIC SIGNS FALL INTO FOUR (4) BROAD AREAS
a) Regulatory signs
• give notice of traffic law and regulations ; stop/yield, speed
signs, parking signs, one way signs
• 2 types: Prohibitive & Mandatory

Prohibitive Signs Mandatory Signs

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b) Warning signs
• call attention to conditions on, or adjacent to, a highway
that are potentially hazardous to traffic operations
• Eg; construction zones, pedestrian crossing & school
zone

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c) Guide or informational signs
• show route designations, destinations, directions,
distances, services, points of interest, and other
geographical, recreational, or cultural information.

d) Temporary signs
• Used during road construction or maintenance.

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Intersection Control

a) Yield Signs/ Give way Signs

• All drivers on approaches are required to slow down & yield

the R-O-W to all conflicting vehicles at the intersection.
• Stopping are not mandatory.
• Placed on minor road approaches

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 b) Stop Signs

• Used where an approaching vehicle is required to stop before

entering the intersection.
• Should not be used at signalized intersections or on through
roadways of expressway.
• May be used: minor road intersects a major road, unsignalized
intersection, high speed, restricted view & serious crashes.

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 2. Road Markings

• Bare roads will lead to total vehicular confusion. Hence,

markings are painted on the road to direct, guide and
regulate the road users.
• Includes all lines patterns, words, symbols and colours
applied on or attached to the road surface or kerb, for the
said purpose.
• Why ??
➢Promote road safety
➢Ensure smooth flow of traffic
➢Convey the message of road signs & other devices

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• Materials used?

a) Paint
✓Best used in situations and on roads where the markings are
not subjected to heavy traffic wear.
b) Thermoplastics (reflectorised and non-reflectorised)
✓ applied hot and sets on laying. It has good durability and is
recommended to be used in heavily travelled urban areas
and in main highways with high traffic densities. All road
centre lines shall be in thermoplastics.
c) Preformed tapes;
✓Markings in this material take the form of plastic sheet
attached to the carriageway surface by means of an
adhesive.
✓The markings must be patterned or embossed in order
secure satisfactory resistance to skidding. It can be used as
temporary markings because it can be removed easily even
after an extended time period

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• Types of Road Markings?
a) Longitudinal Lines
➢consists of either an unbroken or a broken line or a
combination of both marked in the direction of travel.
➢Eg ; Centre line, Edge line, Lane line, Continuity line,
No passing zones, Turn line
b) Transverse Lines
➢are marked across the road and are generally
associated with intersection or junction controls,
traffic signals or pedestrian crossings.
➢Eg ; Stop line, Give Way line, Pedestrian crossing
(Zebra) Markings.
c) Other Markings
➢ Painted islands & Chevron Marking
➢ Yellow Boxes
➢ Arrows

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FKAUiTMPG/nadia2020
 3. Channelization
• Traffic islands or pavement markings may be used at
intersections to facilitate the safe and orderly flow of
vehicles and pedestrians.
• An unchannelized intersection is the simplest type but is
the most dangerous and inefficient.

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FKAUiTMPG/nadia2020
 Increased
capacity

PROPER CHANNELIZED
Enhanced safety
INTERSECTION

Increased driver
confidence
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 Purpose of Channelization
Separation of Conflicts •To diminish the num. of possible vehicles
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conflicts
•Reduce possible area of conflicts in the
carriageway
•To present drivers with only one decision
at a time

Control of angle of conflict • small angles of crossing cause severe

accident if it occurs
•Severity is reduced if the angle of conflicts
is controlled

Control of speed •Reduce speed of the traffic entering the

intersection
•Increase the speed of traffic leaving the
intersection
 Protection of traffic • to protect vehicles
leaving/crossing the main traffic
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stream
Protection of • to provide haven/refuge for
pedestrians pedestrian between traffic flow

Blockage of prohibited • to support regulations by

movement making improper movements or
encroachments impossible or
inconvenient.

Location of traffic • to provide space for traffic

control device control devices such as direction
indicators, signs, etc..
Before Vs. After Channelization

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 Channelization
at T-intersection

Channelization at 4-
leg intersection
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 4. Traffic Control System:
Traffic Signal

Traffic signal installed at intersection because of

some reasons:
1. Control movement of vehicular &
pedestrian traffic
2. For heavy traffic flow
3. Reduce number of conflict points
4. Improve overall safety

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 TYPES OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL

3 types
Pre-timed Semi-actuated Fully actuated
•Preset time & phases •Vehicle detector on •Vehicle detectors at all
•Constant cycle length minor street approaches
•Simple & cheap •Green always at major •Each phase subjected to
•Effective in progressive street unless minor street min to max green time
signal system actuation occurs •Some phase skipped –if
•Can be operated in diff •2-phase plan no demand
timing plans •Cycle length maybe •Cycle length-varies
•Less efficient in varies •Termination of phase-no
fluctuating demand •Good for low-moderate actuations within spec
demand time @when max green
time
•Most flexible form
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 Advantages Disadvantages
1. Provide orderly 1. Can cause
traffic movement delay – during
2. Reduce frequency off-peak Several
of certain accident 2. Accident ADVANTAGES
(right angle and frequency (rear- AND
DISADVANTAGES
pedestrian) end) may
of traffic signal
3. Used to interrupt increased are presented in
heavy traffic at 3. Red-runners the table below:
intervals to allow
other traffic to
go/stop

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 Conflict Points at Intersection

Crossing
Diverging
Merging

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 TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN

Terms

• Phase •Optimum cycle time (Co)

• Interval •Intergreen (I)
• Offset •Lost time (l )
• Saturation flow (s) •Total lost time (L)
• Effective green time (gi) •All red interval (R)
• Controller green time (ki)

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 STOP
STOP
STOP

STOP
Phase-1 Phase-2
(N-S) (E-W)

Two phase of traffic signal

Phase: Part of cycle allocated to any combination of
traffic movements receiving right-of-way
simultaneously during one or more intervals
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The simplest signal cycle is a two phase cycle, in which each
road in turn receives a green indication while the cross-road
receives a red indication. A phasing diagram for a two phase
cycle is shown in Figure 3.1.

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Four phase cycles are also quite common where there are heavy
turning movements. The purpose of such multiphase cycle is to
prevent traffic conflicts by giving heavy right-turn movements
separate signal indications. Figures 3.3 illustrates four-phase
signal cycles.

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 Terms & Definitions
Interval A period of time during which all signal indications
do not change (constant)

Offset Time laps, in seconds, between the beginning of a

green phase at next intersection

Saturation flow (s) When the green period begins, vehicle take some time to start and
accelerate to normal running speed, but after few secs, the veh
queue discharges at a more or less constant rate. S= 525w, where
w,width of lane> 5.5 m…. Otherwise;

w 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25 4.50 4.75 5.00 5.25

s 1845 1860 1885 1915 1965 2075 2210 2375 2560 2760

Effective green time, (gi ) The effective green time can be distribute and
followed by the ratio value of the critical flow.
g = yi (Co – L)/ Ymax
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 Controller green time, (ki) The actual green time (not including amber time)
k = gi + ℓ – a
Optimum Cycle Time (Co) The total time for the signal to complete one sequence .
Co = [ 1.5L + 5] / [ 1 – Y ]
Intergreen (I) The time between the end of a green indication for one phase and
the beginning of a green indication for another.
I=R+a

All red-interval (R) The display time of red indication for all approaches. Allows for
vehicles that might have entered at the end of the yellow interval to
clear the intersection before the green phase starts for the next
conflicting movement
For not all red time, R = 0

Lost time (ℓ) Time during which the intersection is not effectively used by any
movement; this time occurs during the change interval and at the
beginning of each phase.

Total lost time (L) The total lost time at one phase and total time between intergreen
minus amber time.
L = ℓ +  (I – a)

Where; ℓ = lost time at each phase

I = intergreen time
a = amber time
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 How to design? >> Webster Method

Determine Total
Determine Determine Ymax lost time (L)
Determine y-value
Saturation flow (s) Ymax = Σ ycritical
y = q/s L =  ℓ +  (I – a)
s = 525W (pcu/hr) Ymax < 0.85 (OK)

Determine Optimum Cycle

Determine Eff. Green time
Draw time time (Co)
(g) & Controller Green time
phase diagram (k) : Co = [ 1.5L + 5] / [ 1 – Ymax ]
& phase g = yi (Co – L)/ Ymax
diagram Where : 45 sec ≤ Co < 120 sec
&
Absolute min is 25 sec
k = gi + ℓ– a
Co simplify to nearest 5

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 Example 1 :

Traffic Signal Design (2-phase)

Design a traffic signal system for an intersection in which the approach

to a traffic signal controlled system listed as follows. :
a. Intergreen time 3.5 sec for N/S, 4 sec for E/W
b. Lost time 1.5 sec for N/S, 2 sec for E/W
c. Amber time 3 sec for both approaches
d. Lane width 5.5 m for N/S, 5.0 m for E/W

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 Solution:
1. Determine Saturation flow, S & y-value

Approaches North South East West

Flow, q 505 652 760 872

FROM TABLE
Saturation flow, S = 525w 2887.5 2887.5 2560 2560
y = q/S 0.175 0.226 0.297 0.341
y critical 0.226 0.341

2. Determine Ymax

Ymax = 0.226 + 0.341 = 0.567 ……… < 0.85 (OK)

3. Determine Total Lost Time, L

L = (1.5 + 2) + [(3.5 – 3)N/S + (4 – 3)E/W] = 5 sec

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4. Determine Optimum cycle time, Co
Co = →….simplify to nearest 5; use 30 sec

Since yE/W > yN/S → let E/W phase 1 and N/S phase 2

5. Determine Effective green time, g

ሻ
g1 = 0.341 (30 − 5 = 15.0 𝑠𝑒𝑐
0.567

g2 = 0.226 (30 − 5ሻ = 10 𝑠𝑒𝑐

0.567

6. Determine Controller green time , k

k1 = 15.0 + 2.0 – 3 = 14 sec → 14 sec

k2 = 10 + 1.5 – 3 = 8.5 sec → 9 sec

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 Hence;

Phase 1 (E/W) 2 (N/S)

Green (sec) 14 9
Amber (sec) 3 3
Red (sec) 13 18 Red = Co – green – amber

Co (sec) 30 30

7. Time Phase Diagram

Phase 1 (East-West)
0 14 17 30 sec
k=14s a=3s r=13s

Phase 2 (North-South)
0 18 27 30 sec
r=18s k=9s a=3s

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8. Phase Diagram

Phase 1 : East - West Phase 2 : North- South

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 Example 2:
Traffic Signal Design (4-phase)
By using the Webster
method, determine a
suitable signal timing for
the intersection using a 4-
phase system. Use a
yellow interval of 3 secs
and take lost time as 3.5
secs. Design this traffic
light signal as a not all-red
phase. Take saturation
flow as 2000 pcu/hr for all
lanes.

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 Choose Phase by the highest
Solution: ‘y’ to lowest ‘y’ value

Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4 Phase 1

(W) (E) (N) (S)

Lanes 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
335 2000

499 2000

499 2000

189 2000

338 2000

338 2000

519 2000

105 2000

217 2000
115 2000

79

37
Q

2000

2000
S

0.019
0.17

0.25

0.25

0.09

0.17

0.17

0.06

0.04

0.26

0.05

0.11
y=Q/S

ycritcal 0.25 0.17 0.06 0.26

Ymax 0.74 Y < 0.85 OK!

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1) Total lost time,
L = Σl + Σ(I – a) Intergreen, I = R + a
= [4 × 3.5] + [4 × 0] =0+3
= 3 sec
= 14 sec.
I–a=3–3=0

2) Optimum cycle length,

1.5L + 5
C0 =
1− Y
1.5(14) + 5
C0 =
1 − 0.74
= 100 sec. 45 sec ≤ 100 < 120 sec OK!
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 3) Total effective green time, G

G = (C0 − L )
y
Y
G1 =
0.26
(86) G2 = 0.25 (86) G3 = 0.17 (86) G = 0.06 (86)
0.74 0.74 0.74 4
0.74
G1 = 30.22 sec . G =
2
29sec. G3 = 19.8 sec . G4 = 6.97 sec .

4) Controller setting green time, K (displayed green

time)
K=G+l–a

K1 = 30.22 + 3.5 − 3 K 2 = 29 + 3.5 − 3 K 3 = 19.8 + 3.5 − 3 K 4 = 6.97 + 3.5 − 3

K1 = 31sec . K 2 = 30 sec . K 3 = 20 sec . K 4 = 7 sec .
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5) Red time,
r = Co – K – a

r1 = 100 − 31 − 3 r2 = 100 − 30 − 3 r = 100− 20− 3 r4 = 100 − 7 − 3

3
r1 = 66 sec . r2 = 67 sec. r = 77sec.
3
r4 = 90 sec .

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4

(S) (W) (E) (N)

Green, K 31 30 20 7
Red, r 66 67 77 90
Amber, a 3 3 3 3
Co 100 100 100 100
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 6) Time Phase Diagram
Phase 1 (S)
0 31 34 100 sec
K = 31s a=3s r = 66s

Phase 2 (W)
0 34 64 67 100 sec

r = 34s K= 30s a=3s r = 33s

Phase 3 (E)
0 67 87 90 100 sec

r = 67s K= 20s a=3s r = 10s

Phase 4 (N)
0 90 97 100 sec

r = 90s K= 7s a=3s

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 Exercise :

The approach to a traffic signal (2 phase) controlled system

are as listed below:
▪ Intergreen period , I = 4 sec
▪ Lost time, l = 2 sec
▪ Amber time, a = 3 sec
▪ Lane width 6.5 m for N/S, 7.5 m for E/W

Approaches North South East West

Flow, q (pcu/hr) 980 820 1400 1350
Saturation flow, S (pcu/hr)
y = q/S
y critical

FKAUiTMPG/nadia2020
FKAUiTMPG/nadia2020
FKAUiTMPG/nadia2020
END OF
CHAPTER 4