RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY
COURSE CODE:
0604920
Course Description

Definition of scientific research, research

methods, defining the research problem
and objectives, elements of the research
planning, methods of data collection and
analysis, writing the thesis and its
evaluation elements, elements and
methods of writing a scientific paper,
ethics of scientific research,
documentation and citation using
computer programs
COURSE OBJECTIVES

• Develop a basic understanding of research and its

methodologies
• Identify appropriate research topics
• Select and define appropriate research problem
• Prepare a project proposal
• Organise and conduct research
• Write a research report and thesis
1) SOME DEFINITIONS OF RESEARCH

• SEARCH FOR KNOWLEDGE

• IT IS A SYSTEMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC SEARCH FOR
PERTINENT/RELEVANT INFORMATION ON A SPECIFIC TOPIC
• A SYSTEMATISED EFFORT TO GAIN NEW KNOWLEDGE; A
MOVEMENT FROM THE KNOWN TO THE UNKNOWN
DEFINITION ( cont.)

• THE WORD RESEARCH IS COMPOSED OF TWO SYLLABLES, RE AND SEARCH. THE

DICTIONARY DEFINES THE FORMER AS A PREFIX MEANING AGAIN, A NEW, OR OVER
AGAIN AND THE LATTER AS A VERB MEANING TO EXAMINE CLOSELY AND
CAREFULLY, TO TEST AND TRY, OR TO PROBE. TOGETHER THEY FORM A NOUN
DESCRIBING A CAREFUL, SYSTEMATIC, PATIENT STUDY AND INVESTIGATION IN SOME
FIELD OF KNOWLEDGE, UNDERTAKEN TO ESTABLISH FACTS OR PRINCIPLES.
( Grinnel 1993: 4 )
2) SOME TERMINOLOGIES

• Methodology – refers to the methods, techniques, and

procedures that are employed in implementing your
research plan (design)
 RESEARCH METHODS OR
TECHNIQUES

• Research methods or techniques refer to all the methods

the researchers use in performing research operations (
see research instruments / research tools
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

• A science of studying how research is carried scientifically

• A way to systematically solve the research problem by
logically adopting various steps
3) TYPES OF RESEARCH

• Research can be classified from three perspectives:

• I. Application of the research study
• II. Objectives
• III. Inquiry mode employed
I. APPLICATION

• If you examine a research from the perspective of its

application, there are two broad categories:
• A). Pure research
• B). Applied research
A) PURE RESEARCH

According to Bailey ( 1978:17):

Pure research involves developing and testing theories
and hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to the
researcher but may or may not have practical application
at the present time or in the future. Thus such work often
involves the testing of hypotheses containing very abstract
and specialised concepts.
B) APPLIED

• Most of the research undertaken in the social sciences is

applied, the findings being designed either for use in
understanding a phenomena/issue or to bring a change
in a program/situation.
II. OBJECTIVES

A research study can be carried out with four objectives:

• 1. Descriptive
• 2. Correlational
• 3. Explanatory
• 4. Exploratory
TYPES OF RESEARCH

• 1. Descriptive:
The main purpose of such studies is to describe what is prevalent
with respect to the issue/ problem under study. The main
characteristic of descriptive research is that the researcher has no
control over the variables; he can only report what has happened
or what is happening.
The term Ex post facto ( after the fact ) research for descriptive
research is used mainly in social science and business research
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

• Some examples:
✓ Attitudes of students towards quality
teaching
✓ Strategies put in place by a company to increase
workers’ productivity
✓Effects of living in a house with domestic violence
TYPES OF RESEARCH ( cont.)

• 2. Correlational
Aims at discovering or establishing the existence of a
relationship/ association/ interdependence between two
or more aspects of a situation
For instance, the effect of the home environment on
education
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH

• Some examples
✓Relationship between stressful living and incidence of
heart attacks
✓Impact of technology on the language classroom
✓Impact of domestic violence on adolescents
TYPES OF RESEARCH

• 3. Explanatory:
Attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship
between two aspects of a situation or phenomenon. This
type of research will try to explain, for example, how the
home environment affects children level of academic
achievement.
EXPLANATORY RESEARCH

• Some examples:
✓ How does domestic violence impact adolescents
learners ?
✓Why do some schools adopt a program while others do
not?
✓How does technology facilitate learning?
TYPES OF RESEARCH

• 4. Exploratory:
This is when a study is undertaken with the objective
either to explore an area where little is known or to
investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular
research study. When a study is carried out to determine
its feasibility it is also called a feasibility study or a pilot
study
3. INQUIRY MODE

• From the point of view of inquiry , there are two types of

research:
➢ 1. The structured approach
➢ 2. The unstructured approach
1.THE STRUCTURED APPROACH

• This is usually classified as quantitative research

• quantitative studies often use standardized measures, numerical
values, have larger sample sizes, and analyze data using statistical
programs. A study is classified as quantitative if the researcher seeks
to quantify the variation in a phenomenon and if information is
gathered using quantitative variables.
 2. THE UNSTRUCTURED
APPROACH
• The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually classified as
qualitative
• A study is classified as qualitative if the purpose is primarily to
describe a situation, phenomenon, problem or event; the
information is gathered through the use of variables or measured on
qualitative measurement scales, and if analysis is done to establish
the variation in the situation or problem without quantifying
it. Qualitative studies tend to be more “in-depth”, focusing on a
smaller population but probing deeper into a given problem.
4.QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH

• Research must address an important and relevant

issue.This means that:
-it is undertaken to increase knowledge and have some
beneficial implications
-it will also have relevance to the time, place, and
population of the study.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH

• Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and

interpreting information to answer questions. But to
qualify as research, the process must have certain
characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be:
➢Logical
➢Rigorous
➢Systematic
➢Valid and verifiable
➢Empirical
➢Critical
QUALITIES OF GOOD RESEARCH ( cont.)

• Good research is logical: this

implies that research is guided by
the rules of logical reasoning ,and
the logical process of induction
and deduction is essential in
carrying out research.
QUALITIES OF GOOD RESEARCH ( cont.)

• Rigorous-you must be scrupulous (careful) in ensuring that

the procedures followed to find answers to questions are
relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of
rigor (strict) varies markedly between the physical and
social sciences and within the social sciences.
QUALITIES OF GOOD RESEARCH ( cont.)

• Good research is systematic: this implies

that the procedure adopted to undertake
an investigation follow a certain logical
sequence. The different steps cannot be
taken in a haphazard way. Some
procedures must follow others. The
systematic characteristic of research
rejects the use of guessing and intuition in
arriving at conclusions.
 SYSTEMATICNESS

• Good research is systematic as it follows certain steps.

These steps are:
➢Problem identification
➢Reviewing the literature
➢Collecting data
➢Analysing data
➢Drawing conclusions and making generalisations
QUALITIES OF GOOD RESEARCH ( cont.)

• -Valid and verifiable-this concept implies that whatever

you conclude on the basis of your findings is correct and
can be verified by you and others.
• -Empirical-this means that any conclusion drawn are
based upon hard evidence gathered from information
collected from real life experiences or observations.
 QUALITIES OF GOOD
RESEARCH(cont.)
• Critical-critical scrutiny ( examination) of the procedures
used and the methods employed is crucial to a research
enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof
and free from drawbacks. The process adopted and the
procedures used must be able to withstand critical
scrutiny.
5)THE RESEARCH PROCESS:
AN EIGHT – STEP MODEL

A) 5 STEPS IN PLANNING A RESEARCH STUDY

• Step 1: Formulating a research problem
• Step 2: Conceptualising a research design
• Step 3: Constructing an instrument for data collection
• Step 4: Selecting a sample
• Step 5: Writing a research proposal
THE RESEARCH PROCESS:

B) 3 STEPS IN CONDUCTING A STUDY

▪ Step 6: Collecting data
▪ Step 7: Processing data
▪ Step 8: Writing a research report
222222333
6. HOW TO SELECT A RESEARCH
PROBLEM

An ‘angle’ for your research can come from insights

stemming from:

• personal experience
• theory
• observations
• contemporary issues
• engagement with the literature
What is a research problem?!

• A research problem, in general, refers to some

difficulty which a researcher experiences in the
context of either a theoretical or practical situation
and wants to obtain a solution for the same. The
research problem undertaken for study must be
carefully selected. The task is a difficult one,
although it may not appear to be so. Help may be
taken from a research guide in this connection.
Nevertheless, every researcher must find out his
own salvation for research problems cannot be
borrowed.
 Why are research questions important?

“Well-crafted questions guide the systematic planning of

research. Formulating your questions precisely enables
you to design a study with a good chance of answering
them.”
-- Light, Singer, Willett, By Design (1990)
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

• After selecting a problem, it should be stated carefully by the

researcher to delimit his task and isolate a specific problem
before he can proceed with active planning of the study. This
type of decision is culminated in the problem statement.
• Kerlinger (1964) has identified three criteria of good Problem
Statements.
1. A problem should be concerned with relation between two
or more variables. (eg, age, sex . . . .etc)
2. It should be stated “clearly and unambiguously in question
form.
3. It should be amenable to empirical testing.
7. Considerations in selecting a good research
problem

• 1.Interest: a research endeavour (attempt) is

usually time consuming, and involves hard work
and possibly unforeseen problems. One should
select topic of great interest to sustain the
required motivation.
• 2. Magnitude(manageability): It is extremely
important to select a topic that you can
manage within the time and resources at your
disposal. Narrow the topic down to something
manageable, specific and clear.
• 3.Measurement of concepts: Make sure that
you are clear about the indicators and
measurement of concepts (if used) in your
study. Do not use in your research problem
concepts that you are not sure how to
measure.
• 4. Level of expertise: Make sure that you have
adequate level of expertise (know how /
knowledge) for the task you are proposing
since you need to do the work yourself.
• 5.Relevance: Ensure that your study adds to the
existing body of knowledge, bridges current gaps
and is useful in policy formulation. This will help you
to sustain interest in the study.
• 6. Availability of data: Before finalizing the topic,
make sure that data are available.
• 7. Ethical issues: How ethical issues can affect the
study population and how ethical problems can be
overcome should be thoroughly examined at the
problem formulating stage.
8.The Foundation of Hypotheses

• The second step in the research process of social study is to

formulate hypotheses. The hypothesis is a tentative solution of a
problem. The research activities are planned to verify the hypothesis
and not to find out the solution of the problem or to seek an answer
of a question. It is very essential to a research worker to understand
the meaning and nature of hypothesis. The researcher always plan
or formulate a hypothesis in the beginning of the problem.
MEANING OF HYPOTHESIS

• The word hypothesis is made up of two Greek

roots : Hypo + thesis = Hypothesis
• ‘Hypo’ means tentative or subject to the
verification and ‘Thesis’ means statement
about solution of a problem.
• The world meaning of the term hypothesis is a
tentative statement about the solution of the
problem. Hypothesis offers a solution of the
problem that is to be verified empirically and
based on some rationale.
• Hypotheses are designed to express relationships between
variables. If this is the nature of your question, a hypothesis
can add to your research
• If your question is more descriptive or explorative,
generating a hypothesis may not be appropriate
9.The formulation of objectives:

Objectives are the goals you set out to

attain in your study.
• -They inform a reader what you want to
attain through the study.
• -It is extremely important to word them clearly
and specifically.
• Objectives should be listed under two
headings:
a) main objectives ( aims);
b) sub-objectives.
• The main objective is an overall statement
of the thrust of your study.
• It is also a statement of the main
associations and relationships that you seek
to discover or establish.
• The sub-objectives are the specific aspects
of the topic that you want to investigate
within the main framework of your study.
The research objectives

• -They should be numerically listed.

• -Wording should clearly, completely and
specifically communicate to your readers
your intention.
• -Each objective should contain only one
aspect of the Study.
• -Use action oriented words or verbs when
writing objectives.
The objectives should start with words such as:
• ‘to determine’, ‘to find out’,‘to ascertain’,
‘to measure’,‘to explore’ etc.
• The wording of objectives determines the type of research
(descriptive, correlational
and experimental) and the type of research design you
need to adopt to achieve them.
Examples

Descriptive studies:
• -To describe the types of incentives provides by Hotel
XYZ to employees in Algeria.
• -To find out the opinion of the employees about the
medical facilities provided by five star hotels in Algeria.

Correlatinal studies:
• -To ascertain the impact of training on employee
retention.
• -To compare the effectivenesss of different loyalty
programmes on repeat clientele.
Hypothesis –testing studies:
• -To ascertain if an increase in working hours will increase
the incidence of drug/alchohol abuse.
• -To demonstrate that the provision of company
accommodation to employees in Algiers hotels will
reduce staff turnover.
10.WHAT IS A LITERATURE
REVIEW?

The phrase ‘review of literature’ consists of two

words: Review and Literature.
• The word ‘literature’ in research methodology
refers to the knowledge of a particular area of
investigation of any discipline which includes
theoretical, practical and its research studies.
• The term ‘review’ means to organize the
knowledge of the specific area of research to
evolve an edifice of knowledge to show that
his study would be an addition to this field.
 Review of literature

• The term ‘review of literature’ has been

defined in the following ways:
According to W.R. Borg
“The literature in any field forms the
foundation upon which all future work will
be built. If we fail to build the foundation of
knowledge provided by the review of
literature our work is likely to be shallow and
naive and will often duplicate work that has
already been done better by some one
else.”
Some definitions of L.R:

• According to John W. Best

“Practically all human knowledge can be
found in books and libraries. Unlike other
animals that must start a new with each
generation, man builds upon the
accumulated and recorded knowledge of
the past. His constant adding to the vast
store of knowledge makes possible progress
in all areas of human endeavour.”
 FUNCTIONS OF THE LITERATURE
REVIEW

• a. Bring clarity and focus to your research problem;

• b. Improve your methodology;
• c. Broaden your knowledge;
• d. Contextualise your findings.
.
a. Bring clarity and focus to your
research problem;

• The process of reviewing the literature

helps you to understand the subject area
better and thus helps you to
conceptualise your research problem
clearly and precisely. It also helps you to
understand the relationship between your
research problem and the body of
knowledge in the area.
• A literature review tells you if others have
used procedures and methods similar to
the ones that you are proposing, which
procedures and methods have worked
well for them, and what problems they
have faced with them. Thus you will be
better positioned to select a
methodology that is capable of providing
valid answer to your research questions.
c. Broaden your knowledge base in your
research area:
It ensures you to read widely around the
subject area in which you intend to
conduct your research study. As you are
expected to be an expert in your area of
study, it helps fulfill this expectation. It also
helps you to understand how the findings
of your study fit into the existing body of
knowledge.
d. Contextualise your findings:

• How do answers to your research questions

compare with what others have found?
What contribution have you been able to
make in to the existing body of knowledge?
How are your findings different from those
of others? For you to be able to answer
these questions, you need to go back to
your literature review. It is important to
place your findings in the context of what is
already known in your field of enquiry.
 STEPS IN CONDUCTIONG A
LITERATURE REVIEW

• Search for existing literature in your area of study

• Review the literature selected
• Develop a theoretical framework
• Develop a conceptual framework
• Write your literature review
REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

• Read critically the contents of books and articles and look for the
following things:
➢The claims and theories put forward.
➢ The criticisms of these and their basis.
➢ The methodologies adopted, and the criticisms about them.
➢The conclusions and findings advanced
➢Disagreements about the constructs you are investigating
➢The gaps you notice in the literature
 DEVELOPING A THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK

• The information obtained from books and journals now

needs to be sorted under main themes and theories,
agreements and disagreements among authors, and
other aspects related to your research topic; all this needs
to be arranged so as each element will fit in a slot of the
theoretical framework
DEVELOPING A CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK
Writing Lit. Review – Logical Argument / A
Critique

A was the earliest writers to discuss . . .

B made a valuable contribution to the discussion of this problem . . .
C argued that D had not used the appropriate methods . . .
In the 1990s E proposed a completely different approach. . .
The best study of this problem is perhaps by F . . .
WHERE TO FIND SOURCES FOR THE
LITERATURE REVIEW

• BOOKS
• INTERNET
• JOURNALS
• ARCHIVES
• REPORTS
• OBSERVATIONS
• RECORDS…
PROBLEMS IDENTIFIED IN WRITING A
LITERATURE REVIEW

• Some reviews consist of a largely unrelated annoted list of

studies.
• Some reviews are not relevant to the investigation
• Theories in the review might be mentionned or described,
but often without a clear, logical connection among the
theories, or without showing the relevance of each
description
ANSWERING SOME OF THE PROBLEMS
RELATED TO THE L.R.

• The literature you decide to include must be relevant to

the area of your investigation
• The pieces of literature you decide to include must be
logically connected to each other
BOOKS

• Use books first as they gather a lot of information on a

topic
• They also provide a good background information on a
topic
• They also offer intersting extensive bibliographies
JOURNAL ARTICLES

Look for journal articles second

• They discuss one pespective
• Each article makes a unique contribution
• They can supplement information from books
• They offer more up-to- date information
11. WHAT ARE DATA ?

• The term data refers to any kind of

information researchers obtain on the
subjects, respondents, or participants
of the study. In research, data are
collected and used to answer the
research questions and objectives of
the study
• Data collection is an extremely important part of
any research because the conclusion of a study is
based on what the data reveal. The choice of
procedures usually depends on the objectives and
design of the study
 10.TYPES OF RESEARCH DATA

• Research data are generally classified either as

quantitative or qualitative. Based on their sources, they fall
under two categories:
➢ Primary data;
➢ Secondary data
 QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE
DATA

• Quantitative data:
These are information which can be counted or expressed in numerical
values
e.g. nb of students, age, grades, test scores…

• Qualitative data:
These are descriptive information which has no numerical values.
e.g. A person’s attitude, perception, or feelings
TYPES OF DATA:

• Primary data;
• Secondary data
Methods of Data Collection
PRIMARY VS SECONDARY DATA

• Primary data are originated by a researcher for the

specific purpose of addressing the problem at hand. They
are collected directly from the subjects being studied.
PRIMARY VS SECONDARY DATA

• Secondary data:
These are information already available. They have been
collected from other available sources ( recent censuses
and analysed by someone else for purposes other than
the problem at hand. Secondary data may be published
or unpublished.
 11. COLLECTING DATA USING PRIMARY
SOURCES

Research tools:
• 1. Questionnaires
• 2. Interview schedules
• 3. Observations
 1. The questionnaire

• HOW TO CONSTRUCT A QUESTIONNAIRE

• Questionnaires must contain simple but
straightforward directions for the respondents
so that they may not feel any difficulty in
answering the question.
• Do not use ambiguous questions or questions
based on presumptions (supposition or
guessing; : questions should be kept short and
clear, free from guessing and interpretations.
HOW TO CONSTRUCT A QUESTIONNAIRE

• Do not ask leading questions): Don’t lead

the respondents to answer in a certain way.
Eg: How often do you wash your car?

Assumes that the respondent has a car and

he washes it. Instead, ask a filter question to
find if he has a car or not and then : " if you
wash your car, how many times a year?"
• Double-barrelled questions should be
avoided.i.e. two questions in one / asking
two qustions rather than one.
Types of questionnaire:

• There are three basic types of questionnaire, they are

classified according to the kind of questions they include:
1. Closed-ended
2. Open- ended
3. Combination of both
TYPES OF QUESTIONS IN A
QUESTIONNAIRE

• 1. Closed format questions ( closed-ended)

closed- ended questions include all possible answers/
prewritten response categories, and respondents are
asked to choose among them.
e.g. An example of a closed form questionnaire item follows:
If group tests are used in your school, by whom are they
administered?
(a) Administrators (b) Consellors,
(c) Psychologists, (d) Psychometricians,
(e) Teachers, and (f) Others
 TYPES OF QUESTIONS IN A
QUESTIONNAIRE

• 2. Open format questions: (open-ended)

Open- ended questions allow respondents to answer in
their own words.
It doesn’t contain boxes to tick but instead it leaves a
blank for the respondent to write in an answer.
e.g. state your opinion about the quality of X
products and services
---------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------
TYPES OF QUESTIONS IN A
QUESTIONNAIRE

3. Combination of both: this way, it is possible

to find out how many people use a service
and what they think of the service in the
same form.
Begin with a series of closed-ended
questions, with boxex to tick or scales to
rank, and they finish with a section of open-
ended questions or more detailed response.
Other types of questions :

• 4. Dichotomous questions:
e.g. Do you like the products of X company?
yes no

• 5. Importance questions:
e.g. Cost effective services are:
a. extremely important b. very important.
c. somewhat important d. not very important
• 6. Likert questions:
e.g. X Corporation products have to improve
on quality.
1. agree
2. strongly agree
3. neither agree nor disagree (undecided)
4. disagree
5. strongly disagree
• 7. Bipolar questions:
e.g. How would you describe the services of
X corporation?
efficient ---- -X--- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- inefficient
fast ---- ----- ---- ---X-- ---- ---- slow
reliable ---- ---- --X-- ---- ---- ---- unreliable
• 8. rating scales:
e.g. How would you rate the services of X
corporation?

1. good 2. fair 3. poor 4. very poor

3.Observation
An example of an observation workshet
2. Interview

• 2.1. What is an interview ?

a) A structured set of questions designed to
obtain information from a sample.
b) Oxford Dictionary definition : a meeting at
which a journalist / interviewer asks
somebody questions to find out his/her
opinion ,etc ( often shown on television or
printed in newspaper ).
• 2.2.Why is it important ?
It is very useful for getting the story
behind a participant's experience. The
interviewer can follow in-depth
information around a topic. Interviews
usually follow up certain respondents’
questionnaires to further investigate their
responses. Usually open-ended questions
are asked during interviews.
• 2.3.Some Guidelines for Conducting Interviews
Before starting to design the interview
questions and process, the researcher should
clearly articulate to himself what problem or
need is to be addressed using the information
to be gathered by the interviews. This helps him
to keep clear focus on the aim of each
question.
2.4. Preparation for Interview

1.Choose a setting with little distraction. Avoid loud

lights or noises, ensure the interviewee is
comfortable. (Often, interviewees may feel more
comfortable at their own places of work or homes.)
2. Explain the purpose of the interview.
3. Address terms of confidentiality. Note any terms of
confidentiality. Explain who will get access to their
answers and how they will be analyzed. If their
comments are to be used as quotes, get their
written permission to do so.
.
4. Explain the format of the interview. Explain the type
of interview you are conducting and its nature
5. Indicate how long the interview usually takes.
6.Tell them how to get in touch with you later if they
want to.
7. Ask them if they have any questions before you
both get started with the interview.
8. Don't count on your memory to recall their answers.
Ask for permission to record the interview or bring
along someone to take notes.
2.5. Types of Topics in Questions

• A specialist in the field called Patton notes six kinds of

questions. One can ask questions about:
a-Behaviours - about what a person has done or is doing
b. Opinions/values - about what a person thinks about a topic
c. Feelings - note that respondents sometimes respond with "I
think ..." so be careful to note that you're looking for feelings.
d. Knowledge - to get facts about a topic
e. Sensory - about what people have seen, touched, heard,
tasted or smelled
f. Background/demographics - standard background questions,
such as age, education, etc.
2.6. Wording of Questions

• Wording should be open-ended. Respondents should be able

to choose their own terms when answering questions.
• Questions should be as neutral as possible. Avoid wording that
might influence answers, e.g., evocative, judgmental wording.
• Questions should be asked one at a time.
• Questions should be worded clearly. This includes knowing any
terms particular to the program or the respondents' culture.
• Be careful asking "why" questions. This type of question infers a
cause-effect relationship that may not truly exist. These
questions may also cause respondents to feel defensive, e.g.,
that they have to justify their response, which may inhibit their
responses to this and future questions.
2.7. Conducting Interviews

1.Occasionally verify the tape recorder (if

used) when working.
2.Ask one question at a time.
3.Attempt to remain as neutral as possible.
That is, don't show strong emotional reactions
to their responses. Patton suggests to act as if
"you've heard it all before."
4.Encourage responses with occasional nods
of the head, "uh huh"s, etc.
5.Be careful about the appearance when note taking.
That is, if you jump to take a note, it may appear as if
you're surprised or very pleased about an answer,
which may influence answers to future questions.
6.Provide transition between major topics, e.g., "we've
been talking about (some topic) and now I'd like to
move on to (another topic)."
7.Don't lose control of the interview. This can occur
when respondents talk about a different topic, take
a long time to answer and time is running out , or
even begin asking questions to the interviewer.
COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS

• • What question is addressed by this research? Explain the relevant past research and the
ideas that led to this question.
• • What hypothesis was investigated in this study? Explain how it is related to the research
question you discussed in #1 above.
• • How was the study set up? Explain why it was set up this way.
• • What data were collected? Explain why the authors chose these particular data to
collect.
• • What were the results?
• • Explain how well the results do (or do not) support the hypothesis.
• • Explain any alternative explanations for the findings (your own ideas and/or the authors’).
• • What further research does this study suggest (to you and/or the author)? Explain why it
should be conducted.
HOW TO READ A RESEARCH PAPER: A
FOUR- STEP GUIDE

• the four steps: Skimming, vocabulary, comprehension,

and analysis.
1. Skimming. Skim the paper quickly, noting basics like
headings, figures and the like.
2. Vocabulary. Go through the paper word by word and
line by line, underlining or highlighting every word and
phrase you don't understand.
HOW TO READ A RESEARCH PAPER: A
FOUR- STEP GUIDE

• 3. Comprehension, section by section. Try to deal with all

the words and phrases, although a few technical terms in
the Methods section might remain. Now go back and
read the whole paper, section by section, for
comprehension.
Here are some qqs. that you might use to help you better
understand the article.
HOW TO READ A RESEARCH PAPER: A
FOUR- STEP GUIDE

• 4. Analysis. After you understand the article and can

summarize it, then you can return to broader questions
and draw your own conclusions.
ANALYSING RESEARCH PAPERS

• Here are some questions that may be useful in analysing research

papers:
• Introduction:
• • What is the overall purpose of the research?
• • How does the research fit into the context of its field? Is it, for
example, attempting to show the effectiveness of a
program? show the validity of a new technique? open up a new
field of inquiry?
• • Do you agree with the author's rationale for studying the question
with this particular methodology?
ANALYSING RESEARCH PAPERS (QQS.)

• Methods:
• • Were the measurements appropriate for the questions the
researcher was approaching?
• • How is the study controlled? are there control groups? If so, are
they exactly comparable to the experimental groups?
• • Were the measures in this research clearly related to the variables
in which the researchers (or you) were interested?
• • If human subjects were studied, did they accurately represent the
populations under study?
ANALYSING RESEARCH PAPERS (
QQS.)

• Results
• • What is the one major finding?
• • Were enough of the data presented so that you feel you can
judge for yourself how the experiment turned out?
• • Did you see patterns or trends in the data that the author did not
mention? Were there problems in data interpretation that were not
addressed
ANALYSING RESEARCH PAPERS (QQS.)

• Discussion
• • Do you agree with the conclusions drawn from the data?
• • Are these conclusions over-generalized or appropriately careful?
• • Are there alternative interpretations of the data?
• • What further experiments can you think of, to continue the
research or to answer remaining questions ?
CONCEPTUALING A RESEARCH DESIGN

• A research design is a procedural plan that is adopted by

the researcher to answer questions validly, objectively,
accurately and economically
• You need to be aware that there are different conventions for listing different
types of sources, such as books, journals, conference proceedings, and websites.
The format for referencing each of these sources is given below. In the
demonstrations below, the generic format for the specific type of source is first
References (Bibliography):
given, followed by examples. Note that for book referencing, the title of the book
How to cite the references
is italicized, whereas for a journal it is the name of the journal that is in italics. Note
below that the convention is to insert a full stop (.) after the author’s name and
year (e.g. ‘Dreyfuss, H. L. (2001).’); however some publishers omit this convention,
preferring to implement their own house style.
Rules to follow:

There are two rules to follow in the References section:

First, you should list only significant, published
references. References to unpublished data,
abstracts, theses, and other secondary materials
should not clutter up the References or Literature
Cited section. If this reference seems to be essntial,
you may add it parenthetically or as a foortnote in
the etxt.
Second, make sure that all references cited in the text
are indeed listed in the bibliography and that all the
references listed under the bibiography are indeed
cited somewhere in the text.
Most journals cite references in one of the of the
three general ways that may be referred to as :
1. Author and Year Sytem: often referred to as the
Harvard system. It has been very popular for many
years and is used in many journals and books.
Inside the text, you state only the AUTHORr+ YEAR
either with a quotation or without. Full details of the
source are given in a reference list ( bibliography) at
the end of the text. This allows the writer to
acknowledge his/her sources without significantly
interrupting the flow of the writing.
• You should always include the page number when you
include a passage of direct quoatation from another writer’s
work.
Eg. -The seminars……………………employees.(Lyon,1992)
-Kneeper and Cropley (1991:p.44) believe that………..
• When a publication has several authors (more than two), it is
advisable to give the surname of the first author followed by
et al
( an abbreviation of the Latin for « and the others ».)
Eg: Cohen et al. (2000). Research Methods in Education. 5th
edition London: Routledge Falmer.
2.Alphabet-Number System: Citation by numbers is a modification
of the name and year system. Citation by numbers keeps printing
expenses within bounds particularly if it is a long list.Some authors
who have habitually used name and year tend to dislike the
alphabet-number system, claiming that citation of numbers
cheat the reader. The reader should be told, so the argument
goes, the name of the person associated with the cited
phenomenon; sometimes, the readershould also be told the
date, on the grounds that an 1897 reference might be viewed
differently than a 1997 reference.
Fortunately, these arguments can be overcome. As you cite
references in the text, decide whether names and dates are
imortant. I f they are not, use only the reference number:
Eg: "Peretyrosine is quantitatively converted to phenylalanine
under these conditions (13)." If you want to feature the name
of the author, do it within the context of the sentence:
"The role of the carotid sinus in the regulation of respiration was
discovered by Heymans (13)." If you want to feature th date,
you can also do that within the sentence: " Streptomycin was
first used in the treatment of tuberculosis in 1945 (13)."
• 3. Citation Order System: It is simply a system of
citing the references (by numbers) in the order they
appear in the paper. This system avoids the
substantial printing expense of the name and year
system, and readers often like it because they can
quickly refer to the references if they so desire in
one-two-three order as they come to them in the
text. It is a useful system for a journal that is basically
a " note " journal, each paper contatining only a
few references. For long papers, with many
references, citation order is probably not a good
system.
Examples of diffrerent reference styles:

• 1.Author and Year Sytem:

• Day, R.A.1998. How to write and publish a
scientific paper. 5th ed. Phoenix: Oryx Press.
• Hutch, E.J.1986. Guidelines on authorship of
medical papers. Ann. Interm. Med. 104: 269-
274.
• Sproul,J.,H.Klaaren, and F.Mannarino. 1993.
Surgical treatment of Freiberg’s infraction in
athletes. Am. J. Sports Med. 21:381-384.
• 2. Alphabet-Number System:
1. Day, R.A.1998. How to write and publish a
scientific paper. 5th ed. Phoenix: Oryx Press.
2. Hutch, E.J.1986. Guidelines on authorship of
medical papers. Ann. Interm. Med. 104: 269-
274.
3. Sproul,J.,H.Kllaaren, and F.Mannarino. 1993.
Surgical treatment of Freiberg’s infraction in
athletes. Am. J. Sports Med. 21:381-384.
• 3. Citation Order System:
1. Hutch EJ. Guidelines on authorship of medical
papers. Ann. Intern. Med.1986; 104: 269-274.
2. Sproul J, Kllaaren H, Mannarino F. Surgical
treatment of Freiberg’s infraction in athletes.
Am J Sports Med 1993. 21:381-4.
3. Day RA. How to write and publish a scientific
paper. 5th ed. Phoenix: Oryx Press, 1998.
Notice the differences between this sytem and the previous ones.
• Author’s surname, initials (year). Title of book,
Place of publication: Publisher.
Examples:
• Dreyfus, H.L. (2001). On the Internet, London:
Routledge.
• Davenport, T.H. and Prusak, L. (1998). Working
Book:
Knowledge,
Following Boston: and
the Author Harvard
DateBusiness
system School
Press 4.
The title of the book should be formatted to distinguish it from other
details.
Journal

• Author’s surname, initials (year). ‘Title of article’,

Name of Journal, volume number (issue number):
page(s). Examples:
• Burns, E. (1994). ‘Information Assets, Technology
and Organisation’, Management Science, 40(12):
645–662.
• Tearle, P., Dillon, P. and Davies, N. (1999). ‘Use of
information technology by English university
teachers. Developments and trends at the time of
the National Inquiry into Higher Education’, Journal
of Further and Higher Education, 23(1): 5–15.
Newspaper

• Author’s surname, initials (year). ‘Title of article’, Name of

Newspaper,page(s).
• In other words, same format as for a journal citing, but without the
need to provide an issue number. Example:
• Riddell, P. and Webster, P. (2006). ‘Support for Labour at lowest level
since 1992’, The Times, 9 May, p. 2.
• Where the author is not known:
The Indian Agra News (2007). ‘Carbon footprints and economic
globalisation’, 18th April, p. 4.
Website

• Author’s name, initials (year). ‘Title of article’ [online].

Available at: indicate website address. Last accessed:
date. Example:
• Brender, A. (2004). ‘Speakers Promote Distance Education
to Audiences in Asia’ [online]. Available at:
www.chronicle.com. Last accessed: 12th November 2004.
• For a website you might find that you have little information to
write down, or that the article you once read is no longer there.
Do not panic: the trick is to write down as much as you can. If
there is no author for the web article/source, then record the
name of the website instead, e.g. The eLearning Centre (2005).
‘eLearning is taking giant steps!’ [online], etc.
Thesis

• Author’s name, initials (year). Title of thesis, Title of

award, Institution: Place.
Fictitious examples follow:
Aitken, R. (2008). Exploring the Role of Laughter in
the Workplace, PhD thesis, Inverclyde University:
Glasgow.
• Or if it is an unpublished dissertation (e.g. an
undergraduate dissertation):
Anderson, T. (2008). Forecasting Economic Growth:
Lessons from Abroad, 3rd year Dissertation, BA
Economics, Inverclyde University: Glasgow.
Conference Proceedings

• Author’s surname, initials (year). ‘Title of article’, Name of

Conference Proceedings, Place conference was held, page(s),
include website address if taken from a website and indicate date
when last accessed. Example:
• Conole, G., Oliver, M., Isroff, K. and Ravenscroft, A. (2004).
‘Addressing Methodological Issues in e-Learning Research’, in
Proceedings of the Networked Learning Conference 2004, Sheffield.
Available at: www.sef.ac.uk/nlc/Proceedings/Symposa4.htm. Last
accessed: 2nd October 2004.
Lectures/Seminars

• Lecture’s name, initials, (year of lecture, seminar). Title of

lecture/seminar[Information about lecture/seminar]. Date of
lecture/seminar.
• Biggam, J. (2008). E-security in the Digital Age [Lecture given to MSc
E-Business students, Division of Business Information Management,
Inverclyde University]. 3rd February.
• If the lecture/seminar material is available on a virtual learning
environment (e.g. Blackboard) then you can append this
information before the date above (Available: website details).
• To record the example where Barlow, in her book written
in 2007, cites a journal article written by MacFarlane in
2004, and where you have also referred to MacFarlane in
the body of your text (as described earlier), then you can
note this information in your References section by first of
all citing MacFarlane’s journal article in the normal way,
adding the phrase ‘cited in’ (or ‘in’), then citing Barlow’s
book in the normal way, as follows:
MacFarlane, K. (2004). ‘Alternative Approach to
Cognitive Learning’, Organisational Learning, 10(2): 23–
45, cited in Barlow (2007). Learning Again, Milton Keynes:
Open University Press, p. 634
• Suppose that you have read a book titled Classic and Cavalier:
Essays on Jonson and the Sons of Ben and that is made up of
chapters written by different authors and that you want to
reference one of the chapters written by Martin Elsky. You
reference the chapter first, then indicate the general book
details, as shown in the example below:
• Elsky, M. (1982). ‘Words, Things, and Names: Jonson’s Poetry and
Philosophical Grammar’, in Classic and Cavalier: Essays on
Jonson and the Sons of Ben, ed. by Summers, C. J. and Pebworth,
T.-L., Pittsburg: University of Pittsburg Press, pp. 31–44.
• Remember, you can omit the ‘pp.’ if you wish, when indicating
the chapter’s page numbers.
• Citing sources is a laborious, mechanical process but it is a
necessary part of being viewed as a competent researcher. The
upside is that there are easy marks up for grabs.
Processing and Analysing data:

• 1) Introduction
Processing and analyzing data
involve a number of closely related
operations which are performed with
the purpose of summarizing the
collected data and organizing these
in a manner that they answer the
research questions (objectives).
2) The Data Processing Operations

• 1. Editing- a process of examining the

collected raw data to detect errors and
omissions and to correct these when possible.

• 2. Coding: the process of translating

information gathered from questionnaires or
other sources into something that can be
analyzed. It involves assigning a value to the
information given—often value is given a
label.
Coding can make data more consistent:
Example: Question = “Sex?”
Answers = Male, Female, M, or F, etc…
Coding will avoid such inconsistencies
• Example: variable EDUCATION, possible coding:
0 = Did not graduate from high school
1 = High school graduate
2 = Some college or post-high school education
3 = College graduate
3. Classification- a process of arranging data in
groups or classes on the basis of common
characteristics. Depending on the nature of
phenomenon involved.

a) Classification according to attributes: here data is

analysed on the basis of common characteristics
which can either be:
- descriptive such as literacy, sex, religion etc. or
- numerical such as weight, height, income etc.
E.g. Table 1. Hotel Employees with PhD Degree

YES NO TOTAL

PhD Degree 21 9 30
• b) Classification according to class –
intervals: is done with data relating to
income, age, weight, tariff,
production, occupancy etc. Such
quantitative data are known as the
statistics of variables and are classified
on the basis of class –intervals.
• E.g. persons whose income are within
DA 20001 to DA 40000 can form one
group or class, those with income
within D 40001 t0 DA 60000 can form
another group or class and so on. The
number of items which fall in a given
class is known as the frequency of the
given class
Table 3. Saleries Received by Algerian Nurses

Income Range Frequency %

Ds.10001-20000 10 50
Ds.20001-30000 8 40
Ds.30001-40000 2 10
Total 20 100
• 4. Tabulation- Tabulation is the process of
summarizing raw data and displaying the same
in compact form for further analysis. It is an
orderly arrangement of data in columns and
rows. Tabulation is essential because:
a) It conserves space and reduces explanatory and
descriptive statement to a minimum.
b) It facilitates the process of comparison.
c) It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of
errors and omissions.
d) It provides the basis for various statistical computations.
Analysisng data

• Data can be analysed either manually

or with the help of a computer .
• Manual Data Analysis: This can be done
if the number of respondents is
reasonably small. Manual data analysis is
extremely time consuming.
• Data Analysis Using a Computer: If you want to
analyse data using computer, you should be
familiar with the appropriate program. In this
area, knowledge of computer and statistics
plays an important role.The most common
software is SPSS (Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences) for windows. However, data
input can be long and laborious process, and if
data is entered incorrectly, it will influence the
final results.
• 3) Hypothesis-testing: After analysing
the data as stated above, the
researcher is in a position to test the
hypotheses. Do the facts support the
hypotheses or they happen to be
contrary? This is the usual question
which should be answered while
testing hypotheses.
4) Generalisations and interpretation: If a hypothesis
is tested and confirmed several times, it may be
possible for the researcher to arrive at
generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of
fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to
arrive at certain generalisations.
• 5) Preparation of the report or the thesis:
Writing the report is the last, and for many, the
most difficult step of the research process. The
report informs the world what you have done,
what you have discovered and what
conclusions you have drawn from your findings.
The report should be written in an academic
style. Language should be formal and not
journalistic.
 The way to get started
is to quit talking and
begin doing.
Walt Disney

9/3/20XX Presentation Title 161

Thank you