CHAPTER 3

Steady State Single Phase AC

Circuit Analysis

1
 Topics to be covered
3.1Sinusoids
[Link] of Sinusoids
3.3 AC signal parameters
3,4. AC Powers
3.5 Phasor
[Link] (Average), reactive and Apparent Powers
3.7. Simple Ac circuits and Phasor diagrams
3.8. Nods and Mesh Analysis in AC circuit

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 3.1 Sinusoids
• A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of sine or
cosine function.
• A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as
alternating current (ac).
• Such a current reverses at regular time intervals
and has alternately positive and negative values.
• Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or voltage
sources are called ac circuits.

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[Link] of Sinusoids

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 Cont.…

……………………..(3.2)

 The waveform can also be plotted as a function of time,

as shown in Fig. 3.1b. 5
 Cont.…
• Note that this function goes through one period every T
seconds.
• In other words, in 1 second it goes through 1/T periods or
cycles.
• The number of cycles per second, called Hertz, is the
frequency f, where
……………………..(3.3)

……………..…..(3.4)

 which is, of course, the general relationship among

period in seconds, frequency in Hertz.
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 Cont.…
• To show the basic properties of sine wave, let as consider
the following general expression for a sinusoidal
function.
………………….(3.5)

7
Cont.…

8
 Cont.…

………………….(3.6)

………………….(3.7)

N: B: x (t) represents v (t), or i (t) Xm represents Vm or Im

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 Cont.…
• Two other trigonometric identities that normally prove useful in
phase angle determination are

Finally, the angle-sum and angle-difference relationships

for sines and cosines may be useful in the manipulation of
sinusoidal functions. These relations are

3.10

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 Example 3.1
•Plot the waveforms for the following functions:
a)v(t) = 1 cos (ωt + 45°)
b)v(t) = 1 cos (ωt + 225°)
c)v(t) = 1 cos (ωt - 315°)
SOLUTION
•Figure 3.3a shows a plot of the function v(t) = 1 cos ωt.
Figure 3.3b is a plot of the function
v(t) = 1 cos (ωt + 45°)

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 Cont.….
•Figure 3.3c is a plot of the function v(t) = 1cos (ωt + 225).
Note that since
v(t) = 1 cos (ωt + 225°) = 1 cos (ωt + 45° + 180°) this
waveform is 180° out of phase with the waveform in Fig.
3.3b; that is,
cos (ωt + 225°) = -cos (ωt + 45°), and Fig. 3.3c is the
negative of Fig. 3.3b. Finally, since the function
v(t) = 1 cos (ωt - 315°) = 1 cos (ωt - 315° + 360°) = v(t) =
1cos (ωt + 45°)
•This function is identical to that shown in Fig. 3.3b.

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 Cont.….

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.3 Cosine waveforms with various phase angles

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Difference between AC and DC
• In AC both magnitude and direction of the
alternating current changes its value with respect
to time.
• AC current (the amount of electrons) flows in
both directions and DC flows in only one
direction
• DC power degrades its strength as the distance
between generation station and home larger
• AC power degrades very little over 100’s of
kilometers.
• To convert AC to DC, a device needs an item
called a rectifier.
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 [Link] Signal Parameters
3.3.1 Root Mean Square (RMS) Value
• The RMS value of an alternating current is given
by that steady(DC) current which when flowing
through a given circuit for a given time produces
the same heat as produced by the alternating
current when flowing through the same circuit for
the same time .
• Fig.3.4

• It is also called effective value of alternating

current. The figure 3.4 above shows, the
arrangement for measuring the equivalent d.c
value of a sinusoidal current. 15
 Root Mean Square (RMS) Value
• Analytically
• The mean of the square of the instantaneous value of
current over one complete cycle is

Similarly, for v(t) = Vm cos ωt,

3.3.2. Average value
• The average value of Iav of an alternating current is
expressed by that steady current which transfers across
any circuit the same charge as it transferred by that
alternating current during the same time.

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Form Factor

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 3.4. [Link] power
• The instantaneous power is the power at any instant of
time.
• It is the rate at which an element absorbs energy.
• The instantaneous power supplied or absorbed by any device
is the product of the instantaneous voltage across the device
and the instantaneous current through it.
• Consider the circuit shown in Fig. below.

Figure 3.5 simple ac network

18
Cont.….

19
Cont.….

20
 Cont.…

Figure 3.6 The instantaneous power p(t) entering a circuit

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Example 3.2

Solution

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 Cont..
• Then
The instantaneous power will be

A plot of this function, together with plots of the voltage

and current, is shown below
Figure 3.7. Plots of v(t), i(t), and
p(t) for the circuit in Example using
f = 60 Hz

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 [Link] Power
•The average power is the average of the instantaneous
power over one period.
•The average power is more convenient to measure
•The instantaneous power changes with time and is therefore
difficult to measure.
• Thus, the average power is given by

 The average power equation is done over T, we would

get the same result if we performed the integration over
the actual period of P (t) which is T0 = T/2.
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 Substituting p(t)in the average power equation gives

• The first integrand is constant, and the average of a constant

is the same constant.
• The second integrand is a sinusoid.
• We know that the average of a sinusoid over its period is
zero because the area under the sinusoid during a positive
half-cycle is canceled by the area under it during the
following negative half-cycle.
• Thus, the second term in the above Eq. vanishes and the
average power becomes

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 Cont.…
•Since Cos (θv − θi) = cos (θi − θv), what is important is the
difference in the phases of the voltage and current.
•If the phasor forms of V(t) and I(t) are V = Vm/θv and
•I = Im/θi , respectively.
• P is calculated using phasors V and I. To use phasors, we
notice that

The real part of the above equation is the average power

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 Cont.…
• Consider two special cases of the above Equation.
• When θv = θi, the voltage and current are in phase.
• This implies a purely resistive circuit or resistive load R,
and

Where |I|2 = I × I*. The above equation shows that a purely

resistive circuit absorbs power at all times.
When θv − θi = ±90◦, we have a purely reactive circuit, and

A resistive load (R) absorbs power at all times, while a

reactive load (L or C) absorbs zero average power.
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 Example 3
•Given that:
V (t) = 120 Cos (377t +450) V and
i(t) = 10 Cos(377t −100)
A find the instantaneous power and the average power
absorbed by the passive linear network given in the Fig.
below.

Figure 3.12 Sinusoidal source and passive linear circuit

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Solution

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Example 4
•Determine the rms value of the current waveform in Fig.
3.5. If the current is passed through a 2 Ω resistor, find the
average power absorbed by the resistor.

Figure 3.8 periodic wave forms

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Solution

 The power absorbed by a 2 Ω resistor is

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 3.5 Phasors
• Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of phasors, than
sine and cosine functions.
• A phasor is a complex number that represents the
amplitude and phase of a sinusoid.
• It can be represented in one of the following three forms:

a. Rectangular
b. Polar
r  x2  y2
where
c. Exponential   tan 1
y
x

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 Cont.….
 The relationship between the rectangular form and the
polar form is shown in Fig. 3.4 below.
 where the x axis represents the real part and the y axis
represents the imaginary part of a complex number.
 Given x and y, we can get r and 𝛷 as

Figure 3-9 Representation of a complex number 33

 Cont.….
• On the other hand, if we know r and 𝛷, we can obtain x
and y as
Thus, Z may be written as

 Addition and subtraction of complex numbers are better

performed in rectangular form; multiplication and
division are better done in polar form. Given the
complex numbers

 The idea of phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity. In

general,
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 Cont.….

 Since a phasor has magnitude and phase (“direction”), it

behaves as a vector.
 Phasor diagram shows
35
 Cont.….
• Note that it is common practice to express Phasor with
positive magnitudes.

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 Solution

Example 6
Transform these sinusoids to phasors:

SOLUTION

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 3.5.1 Impedance
 The impedance Z of a circuit is the ratio of the
phasor voltage V to the phasor current I,
measured in ohms Ω.

 The impedance represents the opposition to the

flow of sinusoidal current.
 Although the impedance is the ratio of two
phasors, it is not a phasor, because it does not
correspond to a sinusoidally varying quantity.
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 Cont.….
--------------------------------(*)
 The impedances of resistors, inductors, and capacitors can be
readily obtained from Eq. (*) above.
Table 3.1 Impedances and admittances of passive elements
Passive
element Impedance Admittance
R Z=R

From the table we notice that ZL = jωL and ZC = −j/ωC. 39

 Cont.….
 Consider two extreme cases of angular frequency.
 When ω = 0 (i.e., for dc sources), ZL = 0 and ZC → ∞,
• That is, inductor acts like a short circuit, while the
capacitor acts like an open circuit.
• When ω → ∞ (i.e., for high frequencies),
ZL → ∞ and ZC = 0, indicating that the inductor is an
open circuit to high frequencies, while the capacitor is a
short circuit.
• Since V and I are complex, the impedance Z is complex
and

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 Cont.….
•Impedance in ac circuit is analogous to resistance in dc
circuit.
•In rectangular form, impedance is expressed as

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 Cont.….
• As a complex quantity, the impedance may be expressed
in rectangular form as

42
 Cont.….

and if Z1, Z2, Z3, ……. , Zn are connected in parallel,

the equivalent impedance is given by

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 Cont.….

  0; Z  0

Z  jL
  ; Z  

  0; Z  
1
Z
j C   ; Z  0

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EXAMPLE 7

Figure 3.10. Series ac circuit 45

 SOLUTION
•The impedances of the individual elements at 60 Hz are

Since the elements are in series,

 The current in the circuit is given by

46
 Cont.….

The total impedance is then

 At the frequency f = 60 Hz, the reactance of the circuit is

capacitive; that is, if the impedance is written as
R + j X, X<0.
 However, at f = 400 Hz the reactance is inductive since
X>0. 47
3.5.2 Admittance

48
Cont.….

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Example 8

Solution

Figure 3.11. Parallel circuit

Therefore,
And hence,

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 3.6.1,Active (Average), reactive and Apparent
Powers
Complex Power
Complex power S is the product of the voltage and the
complex conjugate of the current:

Figure 3.12 Circuit used to explain power relationship

 The complex power is defined to be
S = VrmsI*rms
 where I*rms refers to the complex conjugate of Irms; that is, if

51
 Cont.…
Then,
 Complex power is then

 The complex power maybe expressed in terms of the

load impedance Z. The load impedance Z may be written
as

Thus, Vrms = Z(Irms) and substitute in S gives,

Since Z = R + j X, S becomes
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 Cont.…
• Where P and Q are the real and imaginary parts of the
complex power; that is

 P: is the average or real power in watts delivered to a load

and it is the only useful power.
 It is the actual power dissipated by the load.
 It depends on the load’s resistance R.
 Q: is the reactive power exchange between the source and
the reactive part of the load.
 The unit of Q is the volt-ampere reactive (VAR).
 Q depends on the load’s reactance X 53
 Cont.…
P = Vrms Irms cos (θv − θi)
Q = Vrms Irms sin (θv − θi
•Notice that,
• Q = 0 for resistive loads (unity pf).
• Q < 0 for capacitive loads (leading pf).
• Q > 0 for inductive loads (lagging pf).

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 Cont.…
 S  Vrms I rmscos (θ v  θ i )  j Vrms I rms sin (θ v  θ i )

S = P + j Q

Apparent Power, S = |S| = Vrms*Irms = P 2  Q2

Real power, P = Re(S) = S cos(θv – θi)
Reactive Power, Q = Im(S) = S sin(θv – θi)
Power factor, pf = P/S = cos(θv – θi)

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 Cont..

Power Triangle Impedance Triangle Power Factor

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 [Link] Power and Power Factor
• . Apparent
Power, S, is the product of the r.m.s. values of
voltage and current, i,.e. S= Vrms*Irms .
• It is measured in volt-amperes or VA
P  Vrms I rms cos (θ v  θ i )  S cos (θ v  θ i )

Apparent Power, S
Power Factor, pf

 The factor cos (θv − θi) is called the power factor (pf).
 Power factor is the cosine of the phase difference
between voltage and current.
 It is also the cosine of the angle of the load impedance.
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Cont.…

58
 [Link] Factor Correction
Power factor correction is the process of increasing the
power factor without altering the voltage or current to the
original load.

Power factor correction is necessary for economic reason.

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 Cont.…
• Industrial plants that require large amounts of
power have a wide variety of loads.
• However, by nature the loads normally have a
lagging power factor.
• A typical load may be a bank of induction motors
or other expensive machinery, the technique for
raising the pf should be an economical one to be
feasible.
• A typical industrial load with a lagging pf is
supplied by an electrical source. Also shown is the
power triangle for the load. 60
 Cont.…

Figure: Diagram for power factor correction

 If we want to improve the power factor, we need to
reduce the angle shown on the power triangle
 The tangent of this angle is equal to the ratio of Q to P.
 We could decrease the angle by increasing P.
 This is not an economically attractive solution because
the increased power consumption would increase the
monthly bill from the electric utility. 61
 Cont.…
• The other option to reduce this angle is to decrease Q.
• A capacitor is a source of reactive power and does not
absorb real power.
• Thus, we can reduce the angle, by connecting a capacitor in
parallel with the industrial load as shown in figure below.

Figure: Power factor correction diagram including capacitor.

62
Cont.…

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 Example 9
•A series-connected load draws a current i(t) = 4 cos(100πt
+ 10 0) A when the applied voltage is v(t) = 120 cos(100πt –
20 0) V.
•Find the apparent power and the power factor of the load.
Determine the element values that form the series-
connected load.
Solution
•The apparent power is
The power factor is

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 Cont.…
• The pf is leading because the current leads the voltage.
The pf may also be obtained from the load impedance.

The load impedance Z can be modeled by a 25.98 Ω

resistor in series with a capacitor with

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 [Link] AC Circuits and phasor
diagrams
• In this topic we will see the phasor relationships between voltage and
current for the three passive elements R, L, and C.
Purely Resistive load
• a purely resistive circuit corresponds to infinite
capacitance C = ∞ and zero inductance L = 0 .)

Fig 3.13 .pure resistive

circuit

66
 Cont…

Fig 3.14.a) Time dependence of iR(t) and VR(t) across the resistor b)
Phasor diagram for resistive circuit.
67
 Cont.….
• Now let us apply the complex voltage

and assume the complex current response

So that

Or in polar form,

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 Example 10

The phasor current is,

 I in the time domain is i(t) = 4 cos (377t + 75°) A

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Purely Inductive Load
• Consider now a purely inductive circuit with
an inductor connected to an AC generator, as
shown in Figure 3,15

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 Cont…

The current and voltage plots and the corresponding phasor

diagram are shown in the Figure 4.10 below

Note: Current reaches its maximum

value after VL(t) does by one quarter of
a cycle. Thus, we say ,the current
lags voltage by π / 2 in a purely
inductive circuit.
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Example 11

72
 Purely Capacitive Load
• In the purely capacitive case, both resistance R and
inductance L are zero. The circuit diagram is shown in
Figure 4.11.

73
 Cont..
Note that XC is inversely proportional to both C and
ω , and diverges as ω approaches zero. The
current and voltage plots and the
corresponding phasor diagram are shown in the
Figure 3.16 below. Notice that at t= 0, the voltage
across the capacitor is zero
while the current in the circuit
is at a maximum. In fact, ic(t)
reaches its maximum before
Vc(t) by one quarter of a
cycle(φ =π/2 ). Thus, we say
that, the current leads the
Figure 3.16 (a) Time dependence of ic(t) voltage by π/2 in a
and Vc(t) across the capacitor. (b) Phasor capacitive circuit
diagram for the capacitive circuit. 74
Table 3.2. Comparison of time-domain and frequency-
domain voltage-current expressions

75
Example 12

Therefore, the current written as a time function is

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 3.8.1 Nods Analysis in AC circuit
 The basis of nodal analysis is Kirchhoff’s current law.
 Since KCL is valid for phasors, we can analyze ac circuits
by nodal analysis.
Steps to Analyze AC Circuits:
1. Transform the circuit to the phasor or frequency domain.
2. Solve the problem using circuit techniques (nodal
analysis, mesh analysis, superposition, etc.).
3. Transform the resulting phasor to the time domain.

Time to Freq Solve Freq to Time

variables in Freq

77
 Example 3.13
• Find ix in the circuit of shown below using nodal
analysis

Solution:
We first convert the circuit to frequency domain:

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 Thus, the frequency-domain equivalent circuit is as shown below.

Applying KCL at node 1,

…………..(1)

At node 2

But Ix = V1/-j2.5. Substituting this gives

By simplifying, we get …………..(2)

79
 Cont.….
• Equations (1) and (2) can be put in matrix form as

We obtain the determinants as

80
 Cont.….
• The current Ix is given by

• Transforming this to the time domain,

ix = 7.59 cos(4t + 108.4) A

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 3.8.2 Mesh Analysis in AC circuit
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) forms the basis of mesh
analysis.
Example 3.14:
Determine current Io in the circuit given below using mesh
analysis.

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 Solution:
Applying KVL to mesh 1, we obtain
(8 + j10 - j2)I1 - (-j2)I2 - j10I3 = 0 …………..(1)
For mesh 2,
(4 - j2 - j2)I2 - (-j2)I1 - (-j2)I3 + 20 90◦ = 0 ………..(2)
For mesh 3, I3 = 5. Substituting this in Eqs. (1) and (2), we
get ………..(3)
………..(4)
Eq (3) and eq. (4) can be put in matrix form as

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From which we obtain the determinants

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THANK YOU!
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