Sinusoids and Phasors

Chapter 6
6.1 Sinusoids
We now begin the analysis of circuits in which the source voltage or current is time-
varying. In this chapter, we are particularly interested in sinusoidally time-varying
excitation, or simply, excitation by a sinusoid. Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or
voltage sources are called ac circuit.

Definition

A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function
• A general expression for the sinusoid,

v(t )  Vm sin(t   )

where
Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid
ω = the angular frequency in radians/s
Ф = the phase
A periodic function is one that satisfies v(t) = v(t + nT), for all t and for all
integers n.

2
T

T is called the period of sinusoid
f is known as the cyclic
frequency of the sinusoid
f =1 / T
• Only two sinusoidal values with the same frequency can be
compared by their amplitude and phase difference.
• If phase difference is zero, they are in phase; if phase
difference is not zero, they are out of phase.
A sinusoid can be expressed in either sine or cosine form. When comparing two
sinusoids, it is expedient to express both as either sine or cosine with positive
amplitudes. This is achieved by using the following trigonometric identities.

With these identities, it is easy to show that

A graphical approach may be used to relate or compare sinusoids as an alternative to using
the trigonometric identities
Example 1

Given a sinusoid, 5 sin( 4t  60 o ) , calculate its amplitude, phase,

angular frequency, period, and frequency.
Solution:

Amplitude = 5, phase = –60o, angular frequency = 4p rad/s,

Period ( T) = 0.5 s, frequency ( f )= 2 Hz.

Practice Problem 6.1

Given the sinusoid calculate its amplitude, phase, angular frequency,

period, and frequency
Example 2

Find the phase angle between and and , State which

State which sinusoid is leading?
Solution:
We have two ways. The first method use trigonometric identities, while the third method uses the
graphical approach.

METHOD 1
In order to compare and we must express them in the same form. If we express them in cosine form
with positive amplitudes,

and
It can be deduced that the phase difference is
he phase difference between and i
METHOD 2 If we express them in sine form with positive amplitudes, . It can be deduced that the
phase difference is .

METHOD 3
Practice Problem 6.2

For the following pairs of sinusoids, determine which one leads and by how much.
9.2 Phasor
• A phasor is a complex number that represents
the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid.

• It can be represented in one of the following

three forms:

a.Rectangul z  x  jy  r (cos   j sin  )

ar z  r 
b.Polar j r  x2  y2
z  re
c.Exponenti where
al y
  tan
1

x
Mathematic operation of complex number:
1. Addition z1  z 2  ( x1  x 2 )  j ( y1  y 2 )

2. Subtraction z1  z 2  ( x1  x2 )  j ( y1  y 2 )

3. Multiplication z1 z 2  r1r2  1  2
z1 r1
4. Division  1   2
z 2 r2
1 1
5. Reciprocal   
z r
6. Square root
z  r  2
7. Complex conjugate z   x  jy  r     re  j
8. Euler’s identity e  j  cos   j sin 

14
Example
• Evaluate the following complex numbers:

a. [(5  j2)( 1  j4)  5 60o ]

b. 10  j5  3  40 o
 10 30o
 3  j4

Solution:
a. –15.5 + j13.67
b. 8.293 + j2.2
a.

b.
Given a sinusoid We use Euler identity to express v(t)
as

Thus,

V is thus the phasor representation of the sinusoid as we said earlier. In other

words, a phasor is a complex representation of the magnitude and phase of a
sinusoid
• Transform a sinusoid to and from the time domain to the phasor domain:

v(t )  Vm cos(t   ) V  Vm 

(time domain) (phasor domain)

• Amplitude and phase difference are two principal concerns in the study
of voltage and current sinusoids.
• Phasor will be defined from the cosine function in all our proceeding study.
If a voltage or current expression is in the form of a sine, it will be
changed to a cosine by subtracting from the phase.

19
The differences between v(t) and V:
• v(t) is instantaneous or time-domain representation
V is the frequency or phasor-domain representation.

• v(t) is time dependent, V is not.

• v(t) is always real with no complex term, V is generally complex.

Note: Phasor analysis applies only when frequency is constant; when it is applied to

two or more sinusoid signals only if they have the same frequency.
Since a phasor has magnitude and phase (“direction”), it behaves as a vector and is printed in boldface.
For example, phasors are graphically represented in below.
Such a graphical representation of phasors is known as a phasor
diagram.
Example
Transform the following sinusoids to phasors:
a. i = 6cos(50t – 40o) A Solution:
a. I  6  40 A
b. v = –4sin(30t + 50 ) V
o
b. Since –sin(A) = cos(A+90o);
v(t) = 4cos (30t+50o+90o) = 4cos(30t+140o) V
Transform to phasor => V  4140 V
Example :
Transform the phasors corresponding to sinusoids :
a. V   1030 V
b. I  j(5  j12) A
c. c
Solution:
a) v(t) = 10cos(wt + 210o) V
5
b) Since I  12  j5  12 2  52  tan 1 ( )  13 22.62
12
i(t) = 13cos(wt + 22.62 ) A o

c)

24
Practice Problem 6.3
Express these sinusoids as phasors:

Practice Problem 6.4

Find the sinusoids corresponding to these phasors:

25
xample

Given and find their sum

olution
Current is in the standard form. Its phasor is

We need to express in cosine form.

Its phasor is

Its phasor is
Practice Problem 6.5

Relationship between differential, integral operation in phasor listed as follow:

v(t ) V  V
dv
dt jV

V
 vdt j
Example
Use phasor approach, determine the current i(t) in a circuit described by the
integro-differential equation. 4i  8 idt  3 di  50 cos( 2t  75)
 dt
Solution:

Phasor form of integro-differential eqn.

i(t) = 4.642cos(2t + 143.2o) A

Practice Problem 6.6
Find the voltage in a circuit described by the integro-differential equation using the phasor approach.

1
20cos(5t  30) A 1
5

10
H
2F
9.3 Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements
Phasor Relationships for Resistor

i (t )  I m cos(t   )  Re(Ie jt )

v(t )  i (t ) R  RI m cos(t   )
Time Domain Frequency Domain
V  RI m  =RI

voltage and current are in phase

Phasor voltage and current of a

resistor are in phase
Phasor Relationships for Inductor
di d
v(t )  L  L I m cos(t   )   LI m sin(t   )   LI m cos(t    90)
dt dt
V   LI m (  90)= LI m e j e j 90  j L I

Phasor current of an inductor

LAGS the voltage by 90 degrees.
Time Domain Frequency Domain
Frequency Domain Phasor current of an inductor
LAGS the voltage by 90 degrees.

Time Domain
Phasor Relationships for Capacitor
dv d
i (t )  C  C Vm cos(t   )  CVm sin(t   )  CVm cos(t    90)
dt dt
j j 90 I
I  CVm (  90)=CVm e e  jCV V=
j C

Phasor current of a capacitor LEADS

Time Domain Frequency Domain the voltage by 90 degrees.
Phasor Relationships for Capacitor

Phasor current of a capacitor

LEADS the voltage by 90
degrees.
Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements
Example:
The voltage is applied to a 0.1-H inductor. Find the steady-state
current through the inductor.
Solution:

Practice Problem 6.7

If voltage is applied to a 50 uF capacitor, calculate the current through
the capacitor.
9.4 Impedance and Admittance
We obtained the voltage-current relations for the three passive elements as

These equations may be written in terms of the ratio of the phasor voltage to the phasor
current a

From these three expressions, we obtain Ohm’s law in phasor form for any type of element as

where Z is a frequency-dependent quantity known as impedance, measured in

ohms.
The Admitance Y of a circuit is the reciprocal of impedance measured in Simens (S).

I 1
Y  or I =YV
V Z

Impedances and Admitances of passive elements.

Element Impedance Admitance

1
R Z=R Y=
R
1
L Z  j L Y=
j L
1
C Z= Y  jC
j C
 Element Impedance Admitance
 The Impedance Z of a circuit is a function of the frequency. L Z  j L Y=
1
j L
1
C Z= Y  jC
j C
 Inductor is SHORT CIRCUIT at DC and OPEN CIRCUIT at high
frequencies.
Capacitor is OPEN CIRCUIT at DC and SHORT CIRCUIT at high
frequencies. Z L  j L
ZL  0   0 (Short at DC)
Z L      (Open as   )
1  0
ZC =
j C
Z C     0 (Open at DC)
ZC  0    (Open as   )
 The Impedance Z represents the opposition of the circuit to the flow of sinusoidal
current.

V
Z   R  jX  X
I Z  R X 2 2
  tan 1

R
=Resistance + j  Reactance
R  Z cos  X  Z sin 
= Z 
Where Re (Z) is the resistance and Im (Z) is the reactance.

 The Reactance is Inductive if X is positive and it is Capacitive if X is negative.

 Thus, impedance is said to be inductive or lagging since current lags

voltage, while impedance is capacitive or leading because current
leads voltage.
The impedance may also be expressed in polar form as
Example: Find v(t) and i(t) in the circuit shown in figure below.
Solution:
Practice Problem 6.8

Determine v(t) and i(t) for the given circuit.

9.5 Application of KVL for Phasors
 The Kirchoff”s Voltage Law (KVL) holds in the frequency domain. For series connected impedances:

V
Z eq   Z1  Z 2    Z N (Equivalent Impedance)
I

 The Voltage Division for two elements in series is:

Z1
V1  V
Z1  Z 2
Z2
V2  V
Z1  Z 2
 Parallel Combination for Phasors
 The Kirchoff”s Voltage Law (KVL) holds in the frequency domain. For series
connected impedances:

1 I 1 1 1
Yeq    Y1  Y2    YN     (Eqiv. Admitance)
Z eq V Z1 Z 2 ZN
 The Current Division for two elements is:

Z2
I1  I
Z1  Z 2
Z1
I2  I
Z1  Z 2
Example: Find the input impedance of the circuit in below. Assume that the circuit
operates at Ꙍ = 50 rad/sec
Solution:
Practice Problem 6.9
Find the input impedance of the circuit in below. Assume that the circuit operates at Ꙍ = 10
rad/sec

Example: Determine in the circuit shown below.

Solution:
First transform the time domain circuit to the phasor domain equivalent.
Practice Problem 6.10
Calculate in the circuit shown below.
6.5 Problems
1. Find the phasors corresponding to the following signals:

2. Transform the following sinusoids to phasors:

3. Obtain the sinusoids corresponding to each of the following phasors:

4. Using phasors, find:

5.

6.

7.
8.

9.
10.

11.
12.

13.
14.

15.