Sanjivani Rural Education Society’s

Sanjivani College of Engineering, Kopargaon-423 603

(An Autonomous Institute, Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune)
NACC ‘A’ Grade Accredited, ISO 9001:2015 Certified

Department of Electrical Engineering

BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING

Unit- 4

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
AND APPLICATIONS

Prof. Dr.M.Sujith
Assistant Professor
Email:[email protected]
Contact No: 9486820743
 UNIT-4

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
AND APPLICATIONS

2
• Types of diodes –PN junction, Zener Diode, LED, Photo Diode.
• Regulated power supply: Block diagram, Full wave bridge Rectifiers,
capacitor filter.
• Voltage Regulators: types, Block diagram of series and shunt
regulators.
• IC voltage regulators: Fixed positive and negative voltage regulators
(78xx, 79xx).
• Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT): Types, working, configurations,
characteristics of CE.
• Applications of BJTs: Switch, single stage amplifier (Only CE)

3
 Types of diodes

● PN junction,
● Zener Diode,
● LED,
● Photo Diode.

4
PN Junction Diode

5
 PN Junction Diode
● A PN-junction diode is formed when a p-type semiconductor is

fused to an n-type semiconductor creating a potential barrier

voltage across the diode junction.

6
● The flow of positive charges (or "holes") and the negative charges (the
electrons).

● Technically, a semiconductor diode is referred to as a p-n junction.

● The p-side or the positive side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes
and the n-side or the negative side has an excess of electrons. In a
semiconductor, the p-n junction is created by the method of doping

● The negative and positive regions of the diode are also the component's
cathode and anode respectively.

7
• The processes that follow after the formation of a p-n junction are of two
types – diffusion and drift.

• As we know, there is a difference in the concentration of holes and

electrons at the two sides of a junction, the holes from the p-side diffuse to
the n-side and the electrons from the n-side diffuse to the p-side. These
give rise to a diffusion current across the junction.

• This motion of charged carrier due to the electric field is called drift.
8
• Also, when an electron diffuses from the n-side to the p-side, an ionized
donor is left behind on the n-side, which is immobile.
• As the process goes on, a layer of positive charge is developed on the n-
side of the junction.

• Similarly, when a hole goes from the p-side to the n-side, and ionized
acceptor is left behind in the p-side, resulting in the formation of a layer of
negative charges in the p-side of the junction.

• This region of positive charge and negative charge on either side of the
junction is termed as the depletion region.
9
10
 Biasing conditions for the p-n Junction Diode

There are three biasing conditions for p-n junction diode and this is based on
the voltage applied:

● Zero bias: There is no external voltage applied to the p-n junction diode.

● Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is connected to

the p-type while the negative terminal is connected to the n-type.

● Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is connected to

the p-type and the positive is connected to the n-type.

11
Zero Bias

12
Forward Bias

13
Forward Bias

14
● When the p-type is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the n-
type to the negative terminal then the p-n junction is said to be forward-
biased.

● When the p-n junction is forward biased, the built-in electric field at the p-n
junction and the applied electric field are in opposite directions.

● When both the electric fields add up, the resultant electric field has a
magnitude lesser than the built-in electric field. This results in a less resistive
and thinner depletion region. The depletion region’s resistance becomes
negligible when the applied voltage is large. In silicon, at the voltage of 0.6 V,
the resistance of the depletion region becomes completely negligible and
the current flows across it unimpeded.

15
16
Reverse Bias

● When the p-type is connected to the negative terminal of the battery and
the n-type is connected to the positive side then the p-n junction is said to
be reverse biased.
● In this case, the built-in electric field and the applied electric field are in
the same direction.
● When the two fields are added, the resultant electric field is in the same
direction as the built-in electric field creating a more resistive, thicker
depletion region. The depletion region becomes more resistive and thicker if
the applied voltage becomes larger.

17
Reverse Bias

18
19
Static I-V Characteristics of PN junction Diode

20
 Types of diodes

● PN junction,
● Zener Diode,
● LED,
● Photo Diode.

21
 Why Zener Diode?
● If reverse biased voltage applied to the p-n junction diode is
highly increased, a sudden rise in current occurs.

● This sudden rise in electric current causes a junction

breakdown called zener or avalanche breakdown.

● The voltage at which zener breakdown occurs is called

zener voltage and the sudden increase in current is called
zener current.

22
 Why Zener Diode?

● A normal p-n junction diode allows electric current only in

forward biased condition. When forward biased voltage
is applied to the p-n junction diode, it allows large
amount of electric current and blocks only a small
amount of electric current.

● When reverse biased voltage is applied to the p-n

junction diode, it blocks large amount of electric
current and allows only a small amount of electric
current.

23
What is zener diode?

● A zener diode is a special type of device designed to operate

in the zener breakdown region.

● Zener diodes acts like normal p-n junction diodes under

forward biased condition. When forward biased voltage is
applied to the zener diode it allows large amount of electric
current and blocks only a small amount of electric current

● Zener diode allows electric current in forward direction like a

normal diode but also allows electric current in the reverse
direction if the applied reverse voltage is greater than the zener
voltage..

24
● Zener diode is always connected in reverse direction
because it is specifically designed to work in reverse direction

Breakdown in zener diode

● There are two types of reverse breakdown regions in a zener
diode: avalanche breakdown and zener breakdown.

25
 Avalanche breakdown
● The avalanche breakdown occurs in both normal diodes and
zener diodes at high reverse voltage.

● When high reverse voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, the
free electrons (minority carriers) gains large amount of energy and
accelerated to greater velocities.

26
● This sudden increase in electric current may permanently destroys the
normal diode.

● However, avalanche diodes may not be destroyed because they are carefully
designed to operate in avalanche breakdown region. Avalanche breakdown
occurs in zener diodes with zener voltage (Vz) greater than 6V.

27
 Zener breakdown
● When the applied reverse bias voltage reaches closer to the Zener
voltage, the electric field in the depletion region gets strong enough
to pull electrons from their valence band.

● The valence electrons that gain sufficient energy from the strong
electric field of the depletion region break free from the parent atom.

● At the Zener breakdown region, a small increase in the voltage

results in the rapid increase of the electric current

28
 Zener breakdown

● When the applied reverse bias voltage reaches closer to the

Zener voltage, the electric field in the depletion region gets strong
enough to pull electrons from their valence band.

● The valence electrons that gain sufficient energy from the strong

electric field of the depletion region break free from the parent
atom.

● At the Zener breakdown region, a small increase in the voltage

results in the rapid increase of the electric current

29
Symbol of zener diode

30
 VI Characteristics of Zener Diode

Zener diodes are available with zener

voltages in the range of 1.8V to 400V.

• When reverse biased voltage is applied to a zener diode, it allows only a small
amount of leakage current until the voltage is less than zener voltage.
• When reverse biased voltage applied to the zener diode reaches zener voltage,
it starts allowing large amount of electric current.
• At this point, a small increase in reverse voltage will rapidly increases the electric
current. Because of this sudden rise in electric current, breakdown occurs
called zener breakdown.
31
32
Advantages of zener diode
● Power dissipation capacity is very high

● High accuracy

● Small size

● Low cost

Applications of zener diode

● It is normally used as voltage reference

● Zener diodes are used in voltage stabilizers or shunt regulators.

● Zener diodes are used in switching operations

● Zener diodes are used in clipping and clamping circuits.

● Zener diodes are used in various protection circuits

33
 Photodiode

● A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to

produce electric current. Sometimes it is also called as photo-
detector, a light detector, and photo-sensor.

● These diodes are particularly designed to work in reverse bias

condition, it means that the P-side of the photodiode is associated
with the negative terminal of the battery and n-side is connected to
the positive terminal of the battery.

● A photodiode is one type of light detector, used to convert the light

into current or voltage based on the mode of operation of the device.

34
What is a Photodiode?

 Some photodiodes will look like a light emitting diode.

 They have two terminals coming from the end.

 The smaller end of the diode is the cathode terminal.

 While the longer end of the diode is the anode terminal

35
The types of the photodiodes can be classified based on its construction
and functions as follows.

● PN Photodiode

● Schottky Photo Diode

● PIN Photodiode

● Avalanche Photodiode

36
Working & VI Characteristics of Photodiode

37
Working of Photodiode
● The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample energy
strikes the diode, it makes a couple of an electron-hole. This mechanism
is also called the inner photoelectric effect.

● If the absorption arises in the depletion region junction, then the carriers are
removed from the junction by the inbuilt electric field of the depletion region.

● Therefore, holes in the region move toward the anode, and electrons
move toward the cathode, and a photocurrent will be generated.

● The entire current through the diode is the sum of the absence of light and
the photocurrent. So the absent current must be reduced to maximize the
sensitivity of the device.
38
Modes of Operation
The operating modes of the photodiode include three modes, namely

● Photovoltaic mode - zero-bias mode, in which a voltage is produced by the

lightened photodiode.

● Photoconductive mode - The reverse voltage application will increase the

depletion layer’s width, which in turn decreases the response time & the
junction capacitance. This mode is too fast and displays electronic noise

● Avalanche diode mode - which permits the multiplication of an avalanche

breakdown to each photo-produced electron-hole pair. This outcome is an
internal gain in the photodiode, which slowly increases the device response.

39
40
41
 Applications

● Light detector
● Demodulators
● Encoders
● Optical communication system
● High speed counting and switching circuits
● Computer punching cards and tapes
● Light operated switches
● Sound track films
● Electronic control circuits

42
 What is Light Emitting Diode (LED)?

● Light emitting diodes emit either visible light or invisible infrared light
when forward biased. The LEDs which emit invisible infrared light are used
for remote controls.

● A light Emitting Diode (LED) is an optical semiconductor device that emits

light when voltage is applied. In other words, LED is an optical
semiconductor device that converts electrical energy into light energy

43
● When Light Emitting Diode (LED) is forward biased, free electrons in the
conduction band recombines with the holes in the valence band and
releases energy in the form of light.

● The process of emitting light in response to the strong electric field or flow
of electric current is called electroluminescence.

Layers of LED
● A Light Emitting Diode (LED) consists of three layers: p-type semiconductor,
n-type semiconductor and depletion layer.

● The p-type semiconductor and the n-type semiconductor are separated by a

depletion region or depletion layer.

44
How Light Emitting Diode (LED) works?

45
 How Light Emitting Diode (LED) works?

● Light Emitting Diode (LED) works only in forward bias condition. When Light
Emitting Diode (LED) is forward biased, the free electrons from n-side and
the holes from p-side are pushed towards the junction.

● When free electrons reach the junction or depletion region, some of the free
electrons recombine with the holes in the depletion region. In the similar
way, holes from p-side recombine with electrons in the depletion region.

● Because of the recombination of free electrons and holes in the depletion

region, the width of depletion region decreases. As a result, more charge
carriers will cross the p-n junction.

46
 How LED emits light?

The free electrons in the conduction band do not stay for long period. After a short
period, the free electrons lose energy in the form of light and recombine with
the holes in the valence band. Each recombination of charge carrier will emit some
light energy.
47
 Construction of LED

The safe forward voltage ratings of most LEDs is from 1V to 3 V and

forward current ratings is from 200 mA to 100 mA.
48
 How Light Emitting Diode (LED) works?

● When LED is forward biased, free electrons from n-type semiconductor and
holes from p-type semiconductor are pushed towards the active region.

● When free electrons from n-side and holes from p-side recombine with the
opposite charge carriers (free electrons with holes or holes with free
electrons) in active region, an invisible or visible light is emitted.

● In LED, most of the charge carriers recombine at active region. Therefore,

most of the light is emitted by the active region. The active region is also
called as depletion region.

49
50
Output characteristics of LED

● The amount of output light

emitted by the LED is directly
proportional to the amount of
forward current flowing through
the LED.

● More the forward current, the

greater is the emitted output light.

51
 The Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier
● Power Diodes can be connected together to form a full wave rectifier that
convert AC voltage into pulsating DC voltage for use in power supplies

● The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two
diodes conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half
cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while
diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load
as shown below.

● To rectify both half-cycles of a sine wave, the bridge rectifier uses four
diodes, connected together in a “bridge” configuration. The secondary
winding of the transformer is connected on one side of the diode bridge
network and the load on the other side..

52
Following image shows a bridge rectifier circuit.

53
 Positive half cycle

● During positive half cycle of the source, diodes D1 and D2

conduct while D3 and D4 are reverse biased. This produces a
positive load voltage across the load resistor (note the plus-
minus polarity across the load resistor).

54
 Negative half cycle
● During the next half-cycle, the source voltage polarity reverses.
Now, D3 and D4 are forward biased while D1 and D2 are
reverse biased. This also produces a positive load voltage
across the load resistor as before.

55
● Note that regardless of the polarity of the input, the load voltage has the
same polarity and the load current is in the same direction.

● In this way the circuit converts the AC input voltage to the pulsating DC
output voltage.

56
DC Value of a Full-Wave Signal

● Because a bridge rectifier produces a full-wave output, the

formula for calculating average DC value is the same as that
given for the full-wave rectifier:
2V p
Vdc 

Vdc  0.636V p

● This equation tells us that the DC value of a full-wave signal is

about 63.6 percent of the peak value. For example, if the peak
voltage of the full-wave signal is 10V, the dc voltage will be
6.36V

57
 Filtering the Output of a Rectifier
● The output we get from a full-wave rectifier is a pulsating DC
voltage that increases to a maximum and then decreases to zero.

● We do not need this kind of DC voltage. What we need is a steady

and constant DC voltage, free of any voltage variation or ripple, as
we get from the battery.

● To obtain such a voltage, we need to filter the full-wave signal.

One way to do this is to connect a capacitor, known as a
smoothing capacitor, across the load resistor as shown below.

58
59
● Initially, the capacitor is uncharged. During the first quarter-cycle, diodes
D1 and D2 are forward biased, so the capacitor starts charging. The
charging continues until the input reaches its peak value. At this point, the
capacitor voltage equals Vp.

● After the input voltage reaches its peak, it begins to decrease. As soon as the
input voltage is less than Vp, the voltage across the capacitor exceeds the
input voltage which turns off the diodes.

● As the diodes are off, the capacitor discharges through the load resistor and
supplies the load current, until the next peak is arrived.

● When the next peak arrives, diodes D3 and D4 conduct briefly and recharges
the capacitor to the peak value.

60
Characteristics of Bridge Rectifier

Ripple Factor
● The smoothness of the output DC signal is measured by a factor known as
the ripple factor. The output DC signal with fewer ripples is considered a
smooth DC signal while the output with high ripples is considered a high
pulsating DC signal.
● Mathematically, the ripple factor is defined as the ratio of ripple voltage to
the pure DC voltage.
● The ripple factor for a bridge rectifier is given by

● For bridge rectifiers, the ripple factor is 0.48.

61
Peak Inverse Voltage
● The maximum voltage that a diode can withstand in the reverse bias
condition is known as a peak inverse voltage. During the positive half cycle,
the diodes D1 and D3 are in the conducting state while D2 and D4 are in the
non-conducting state. Similarly, during the negative half cycle, diodes D2 and
D4 are in the conducting state, and diodes D1 and D3 are in the non-
conducting state.

Efficiency
● The rectifier efficiency determines how efficiently the rectifier converts
Alternating Current (AC) into Direct Current (DC). Rectifier efficiency is
defined as the ratio of the DC output power to the AC input power. The
maximum efficiency of a bridge rectifier is 81.2%.

62
63
64
Voltage Regulator

65
 Voltage Regulator
● A voltage regulator is an electronic or electrical device that
can sustain the voltage of power supply within suitable
limits. A voltage regulator is designed to automatically
‘regulate’ voltage level.

● It basically steps down the input voltage to the desired level

and keeps that in that same level during the supply.

● A voltage regulator – as the same suggests – regulates the

voltage, regardless of the adjustments in the input voltage or
connected load. It works as a shield for protective devices
from damage. It can regulate both AC and DC voltages,
depending on its design.

66
Thus, a voltage regulator is used for two reasons:-

• To regulate or vary the output voltage of the circuit.

• To keep the output voltage constant at the desired

value in-spite of variations in the supply voltage or in
the load current.

67
Types of Voltage Regulators

There are two main types of voltage regulators available:

● Linear Voltage Regulators
● Switching Voltage Regulators

68
69
 Linear Voltage Regulator
● This type of voltage regulator performs as a voltage divider.
The steady output is sustained by varying the resistance of
voltage regulator with respect to the load.

Generally, these types of voltage regulator are of two types:

 Series voltage regulator
 Shunt voltage regulator

● It implements a variable element positioned in series with

the connected load. The steady output is sustained by varying
the resistance of this element with respect to the load.

70
Discrete Transistor Series Voltage Regulator
● Here from the block diagram, we can see an unregulated input is first fed

into a controller. It actually controls the input voltage magnitude and

given to the output. This output is given to the feedback circuit. It is
sampled by the sampling circuit and given to the comparator. There it is
compared by the reference voltage and given back to the output.

71
● Here, the comparator circuit will give a control signal to the controller

whenever there is an increase or decrease in the output voltage. Thus,

the controller will reduce or increase the voltage to the acceptable range
so that a sustained voltage will get as the output.

72
 Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator
● When a Zener diode is used as a voltage regulator, it is known as a
Zener controlled transistor series voltage regulator or an emitter
follower voltage regulator. Here, the transistor used is emitter follower.
The emitter and the collector terminals of the series pass transistor
used here are in series with respect to load. The variable element is a
transistor and the Zener diode will supply the reference voltage.
VOUT = VZENER - VBE

73
Case 1 : Output Voltage Decreases
● Under this circumstance , the increased base-emitter voltage will
cause transistor Q1 to conduct more, thus increasing the output
voltage. Hence, the output voltage will be maintained at a constant
level.

Case 2 : Output Voltage Increases

● Under this circumstance , the decreased base-emitter voltage will
cause Q1 to conduct less, thus reducing the output voltage.
Hence, the output voltage will be maintained at a constant level.

74
 SHUNT VOLTAGE REGULATOR

● The shunt voltage regulator provides a way from the supply voltage
reaching to the ground with the help of variable resistance.

● From the load, the current is shunted away from the load to the
ground.

● We can simply say that this regulator can absorb current and it is
less efficient compared to the series voltage regulator. The
applications include error amplifiers, voltage monitoring, precision
current limiters, etc.

75
 Discrete Transistor Shunt Voltage Regulator
● Here, the current is shunted away from the load. The controller will
shunt a portion of the total current that is developed by the
unregulated input which is given to the load. The voltage regulation
takes place across the load.
● Here, the comparator circuit will give a control signal to the controller
whenever there is an increase or decrease in the output voltage
because of the variation in load. Thus, the controller will shunt the
extra current from the load so as to get a sustained voltage as the
output.

76
 Zener Controlled Transistor Shunt Voltage Regulator
● Here, the unregulated voltage is directly proportional to the voltage drop
occurs in the series resistance. This voltage drop is related to the current
given to the load. The output voltage is related to the transistor base emitter
voltage (VBE) and the Zener diode.
VOUT = VZENER + VBE = VIN – I x RSERIES

77
 IC Voltage Regulator

● All voltage sources cannot able to give fixed output due to

fluctuations in the circuit.

● For getting constant and steady output, the voltage

regulators are implemented. The integrated circuits which are
used for the regulation of voltage are termed as voltage
regulator ICs.

● 7805 voltage regulator IC produces a DC voltage of +5 volts.

● 7905 voltage regulator IC produces a DC voltage of -5 volts.

78
 IC 7805

● For 7805 IC, it is +5V DC regulated power supply.

● This regulator IC also adds a provision for a heat sink.

● The input voltage to this voltage regulator can be up to 35V, and this

IC can give a constant 5V for any value of input less than or equal to
35V which is the threshold limit.

79
 IC 7805

PIN 1-INPUT
The function of this pin is to give the input voltage. It should be in the
range of 7V to 35V. We apply an unregulated voltage to this pin for
regulation. For 7.2V input, the PIN achieves its maximum efficiency.

PIN 2-GROUND
We connect the ground to this pin. For output and input, this pin is
equally neutral (0V).

PIN 3-OUTPUT
This pin is used to take the regulated output. It will be = 5V(4.8V – 5.2V)

80
When the distance between the power supply filter and the regulator is high,
then the 0.33uF capacitor is needed to place it near the input. The 0.1uF
capacitor placed is not a mandatory one, its optional, it is used for the transient
response.
Vin is the input voltage, here it is shown as the source from battery. 7805IC
receives input from the battery of an unregulated DC. Vout is the output voltage.
The output is received from the 7805 IC. The output received there is the
regulated 5V.
81
82
 IC 7905

● LM 7905 is a standalone 5V voltage regulator integrated circuit with

negative output polarity therefore it is used in such power applications

where a positive ground voltage is used instead of negative.
● 7905 is an extremely easy to use IC and has only 3 pins.

1. Ground
2. Input
3. Output

83
 7905 Basic Circuit Diagram

● Here is the image showing the basic usage of 7905 IC, you can see

that a 1uf capacitor is used at the input to filter the noise. Make sure
that capacitor voltage is more than the input voltage.
● Another 10uf capacitor is used at the output to further refine the

output current. Input voltage can be anywhere between 7v to 25V.

The maximum allowed current is 1.5A.

84
85
86
87
Transistor

88
 Transistor
● The name of Transistor is derived from the combination of tow words
i.e. Transfer and Resistance = Transistor.

● In other words, a transistor transfers the resistance from one end to the
other. In short, a transistor has high resistance in the input section
while low resistance in the output section.

89
What is a Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)?
● The Bipolar junction transistor is a solid-state device and in these
transistors, the current flow in two terminals are emitter and
collector, and the flow of current controlled by the third terminal
is the base terminal.

● A BJT is a 3-terminal semiconductor device, as the name suggests,

the term bipolar is taken from the truth that this kind of transistor
includes two kinds of semiconductor materials like P-type
(positive type) and n-type (negative type) where the current flows
from these regions.

90
Symbol of PNP and NPN transistor

91
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

● Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a bidirectional device that uses

both electrons and holes as charge carriers.

● BJT is a current controlled device.

● The current flows from emitter to collector or from collector to

emitter depending on the type of connection. This main current is
controlled by a very small current at the base terminal

92
 Construction of Bipolar Junction Transistor

● A Bipolar Junction Transistor is a three-layer device where every

layer is connected by an electrical.

● The three-terminal are called Emitter E, Base B, and Collector C.

● An NPN transistor can be formed by doping a sandwich of P-type

between two N-types.

● Similarly, a PNP transistor is formed by doping a sandwich of N-type

between two P-type materials

● There are two PN junctions at a transistor. The first junction is a

base-emitter BE junction and the second one is called a base-
collector BC junction.
93
If the number of electrons are greater than the number of holes (positive
carriers) then that is known as N-type semiconductor material.

While in P-type semiconductor, the number of holes is greater than the

number of electrons. When P-type and N-type material are connected
together then it becomes a PN-junction diode.

94
 Terminals of BJT

● Emitter
● Base
● Collector

95
 Emitter
● The emitter is the portion on one side of the transistor which emits
electrons or holes to the other two portions. It is the most heavily doped
region of the BJT.

● The base is always reverse bias with respect to emitter so that it can
emit a large number of majority carriers.

● The emitter-base junction should be always forward bias in both PNP

and NPN transistors.

● Emitter supplies electrons to the emitter-base junction in NPN while it

supplies holes into the same junction in PNP transistor.

96
 Collector
● The portion on the opposite side of the Emitter that collects the emitted
charge carriers (i.e. electrons or holes) is known as collector.

● The collector is heavily doped but the doping level of the collector is in
between the lightly doping level of base and heavily doped level of
emitter.

● Collector-base junction should be always reversed biased in both PNP

and NPN transistors.

97
 Base

● The base is the middle portion between collector and emitter & it forms
two PN junctions between them.

● The base is the most lightly doped portion of the BJT.

● Being the middle portion of the BJT allows it to control the flow of
charge carriers between emitter and collector.

● The base-collector junction shows high resistance because this junction is

reversed bias.

98
 Equivalent circuit
● The transistor equivalent circuit contains two back to back diode.

● In the case of the NPN transistor, the anode terminals of both diodes
are shorted and named as a base.

● Where in the case of the PNP transistor, the cathode terminal is

shorted and named as a base terminal of the diode.

99
 PNP Construction
● The cathodes of the diodes are connected together at a common point known
as base. While the anodes of the diodes that are on the opposite sides are known
as the collector and the emitter.
● The emitter-base junction is forward bias while collector-base junction is
reverse bias. So, in PNP type current flows from emitter to collector.

100
 NPN Construction
● The anode of the diodes are connected together at a common point known as
base. While the cathodes of the diodes that are on the opposite sides are known as
the collector and the emitter.
● The emitter-base junction is forward bias while collector-base junction is
reverse bias. So, in PNP type current flows from emitter to collector.

101
 Working of BJT

● This changing ability makes it able to perform both as an “Amplifier” or a

“Switch”.

● It can be used either as a switch or an amplifier at a single time. Therefore,

BJT can operate in three different regions to perform the said operation.

● Active Region
● Saturation
● Cut-off

102
Active Region:

● In Active region, one of the junctions is in a forward bias while the other

is in reverse bias.
● Here, the base current Ib can be used to control the amount of collector

current Ic.
● Therefore, the active region is used for amplification purposes where the

BJT acts as an amplifier with a gain β using the equation;

ic = β x I b

● It is also known as linear region. This region is in between the cutoff

region and the saturation region. The normal operation of BJT occurs in
this region.

103
Saturation Region:
● In saturation region, both of the junctions of the BJT are in forward

bias. This region is used for the ON-state of a switch where;

ic = isat

● Isat is the saturation current & it is the maximum amount of current flowing

between emitter and collector when BJT is in saturation region.

● Since both junctions are in forward bias so, BJT acts as a short circuit.

104
Cut-off Region:

● In cutoff region, both junctions of a BJT are in reverse bias. Here the

BJT work as off state of a switch where

ic = 0

● This mode is achieved by reducing base voltage less than both

emitter and collector voltage.

Vbe < 0.7

105
Consolidated

● Active Region – the transistor operates as an amplifier

Ic = β*Ib

● Saturation – the transistor is “Fully-ON” operating as a switch and

Ic = I(saturation)

● Cut-off – the transistor is “Fully-OFF” operating as a switch and

Ic = 0

106
Working Principle of BJT

107
Working Principle of BJT
● BJT have two junctions formed by the combination of two back to back PN
junctions. Base-Emitter junction (BE) is forward bias while collector-
emitter junction (CE) is reverse bias.

● At BE junction, the potential barrier decreases with forward bias. So,

electron start flowing from emitter terminal to base terminal.

108
● Due to combination of electrons and holes, current from base terminal will
start flowing known as Base current (ib).

● Base current is only 2% of the emitter current Ie while the remaining

electrons will flow from the reverse bias collector junction known
as Collector current (ic). The total emitter current will be the combination of
base current & collector current given by; ie = ib+ic

109
 BJT Configuration

● These three types of configurations respond differently to the input signal

applied to the circuit because of the static characteristics of the BJT.

● Common Base (CB) configuration

● Common Emitter (CE) configuration

● Common Collector (CC) Configuration

110
 Common Base (CB) Configuration
● The Common Base configuration is also called as the grounded base configuration,
where the base of the BJT is connected as a common between both the input and
output signal.

● The input to the BJT is applied across the Base and Emitter Terminals and the
output from the BJT is obtained across the Base and Collector terminal.

111
 CB - Input characteristics

● The input Characteristic curve for the Common Base configurations is

drawn between the emitter current IE and the voltage between the base and
emitter VEB.

112
 CB - Output characteristics

● The output characteristics of the Common Base configuration are given

between the collector current IC and the voltage between the collector and
base VCB, here the emitter Current IE is the measuring parameter.

113
 Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

● The Common Emitter Configuration is also called the grounded emitter

configuration where the emitter acts as the common terminal between the
input applied between the base and emitter and the output obtained between
the collector and the emitter.
● This configuration produces the highest current and power gain

114
 CE - Input characteristics
● The input characteristics of the Common Emitter configuration are drawn between
the base current IB and the voltage between the base and emitter VBE. Here the
Voltage between the Collector and the emitter is the most common parameter.

115
 CE - Output characteristics

● The output characteristics are drawn between the Collector Current IC and

the voltage between the collector and the Emitter VCE.

● Active region the collector junction is reverse biased and the emitter

junction is forward biased

116
 Common Collector (CC) Configuration

● The Common Collector Configuration is also called the grounded Collector

configuration where the collector terminal is kept as the common terminal

between the input signal applied across the base and the emitter, and the
output signal obtained across the collector and the emitter.
● This configuration is commonly called as the Voltage follower or the emitter

follower circuit.

117
 CC - Input characteristics

● The input characteristics describe the relationship between input current or

base current (IB) and input voltage or base-collector voltage (VBC).

118
 CC - Output characteristics

● The output characteristics describe the relationship between output current or

emitter current (IE) and output voltage or emitter-collector voltage (VEC).

119
 BJT Configuration

● BJT is three-terminal device so there are three possible ways to connect BJT

in a circuit with one terminal being common among others

Common Common Common

Characteristic
Base Emitter Collector

Input Impedance Low Medium High

Output Impedance Very High High Low

Phase Shift 0o 180o 0o

Voltage Gain High Medium Low

Current Gain Low Medium High

Power Gain Low Very High Medium

120
Application of Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)

BJT can be used in various kinds of applications such as

● logic circuits,

● amplification circuits,

● oscillation circuits,

● multi-vibrator circuits,

● clipping circuits,

● circuits of the timer,

● time delay circuits,

● switching circuits, etc.

121
BJT as switch

BJT as Switch

122
 Working of Transistor as a Switch

● Switching and Amplification are the two areas of applications of Transistors

and Transistor as a Switch is the basis for many digital circuits

123
● Saturation Region is also primarily used in switching and digital logic
circuits

● In this mode of operation, both the emitter-base and collector-base

junctions are forward biased. Current flows freely from collector to emitter
with almost zero resistance. In this mode, the transistor is fully switched
ON and is essentially a close circuit.

124
● Cutoff Region is also primarily used in switching and digital logic circuits.

● In this mode, both collector base junction and emitter base junction are
reverse biased. As both the PN Junctions are reverse biased, there is almost
no current flow except small leakage currents.

● BJT in this mode is switched OFF and is essentially an open circuit.

125
 NPN Transistor as a Switch

● Based on the voltage applied at the base terminal of a transistor switching

operation is performed. When a sufficient voltage (VIN > 0.7 V) is applied
between the base and emitter, collector to emitter voltage is approximately
equal to 0. Therefore, the transistor acts as a short circuit. The collector
current VCC / RC flows through the transistor.

● Similarly, when no voltage or zero voltage is applied at the input, transistor

operates in cutoff region and acts as an open circuit

126
 IC = VCC / RC, when VIN = 5V
IC = 5V / 0.7 KΩ
IC = 7.1 mA
Base Current IB = IC / β
IB = 7.1 mA / 125
IB = 56.8 µA
VC = VCC – (IC * RC)
= 5V – (7.1*10-3 *0.7*103)
= 5V – 4.97
VC = 0V Approx (Closed)

From the above calculations, the maximum or peak value of the collector current in the
circuit is 7.1mA when VCE is equal to zero. And the corresponding base current for this
collector current is 56.8 µA.

So, it is clear that when the base current is increased beyond the 56.8 micro ampere,
then the transistor comes into the saturation mode. 127
 Consider the case when zero volt is applied at the
IC = VCC / RC, when VIN = 0
IC = 0V / 0.7 KΩ input. This causes the base current to be zero and as

IC = 0 the emitter is grounded, emitter base junction is not

Base Current IB = IC / β forward biased
IB = 0
Therefore, the transistor is in OFF condition and
VC = VCC – (IC * RC)
= 5V – 0 the collector output voltage is equal to 5V.
VC = 5V (Open Circuit)
128
Consider that input voltage applied is 5 volts, then the base current can be
determined by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
When VI = 5V,

IB = (VI – VBE) / RB

For silicon transistor, VBE = 0.7 V

Thus, IB = (5V – 0.7V) / 50 KΩ
= 86 µA, which is greater than 56.8 µA

Therefore, as the base current is greater than 56.8 micro ampere current, the
transistor will be driven to saturation i.e., it is fully ON, when 5V is applied at
the input. Thus, the output at the collector becomes approximately zero.

129
Transistor as a Switch

130
Operation of BJT

● Active Region – the transistor operates as an amplifier

Ic = β*Ib

● Saturation – the transistor is “Fully-ON” operating as a switch and

Ic = I(saturation)

● Cut-off – the transistor is “Fully-OFF” operating as a switch and

Ic = 0

131
BJT as switch

BJT as Switch

132
 Working of Transistor as a Switch

● Switching and Amplification are the two areas of applications of Transistors

and Transistor as a Switch is the basis for many digital circuits

133
● Saturation Region is also primarily used in switching and digital logic
circuits

● In this mode of operation, both the emitter-base and collector-base

junctions are forward biased. Current flows freely from collector to emitter
with almost zero resistance. In this mode, the transistor is fully switched
ON and is essentially a close circuit.

134
● Cutoff Region is also primarily used in switching and digital logic circuits.

● In this mode, both collector base junction and emitter base junction are
reverse biased. As both the PN Junctions are reverse biased, there is almost
no current flow except small leakage currents.

● BJT in this mode is switched OFF and is essentially an open circuit.

135
 NPN Transistor as a Switch

● Based on the voltage applied at the base terminal of a transistor switching

operation is performed. When a sufficient voltage (VIN > 0.7 V) is applied
between the base and emitter, collector to emitter voltage is approximately
equal to 0. Therefore, the transistor acts as a short circuit. The collector
current VCC / RC flows through the transistor.

● Similarly, when no voltage or zero voltage is applied at the input, transistor

operates in cutoff region and acts as an open circuit

136
 IC = VCC / RC, when VIN = 5V
IC = 5V / 0.7 KΩ
IC = 7.1 mA
Base Current IB = IC / β
IB = 7.1 mA / 125
IB = 56.8 µA
VC = VCC – (IC * RC)
= 5V – (7.1*10-3 *0.7*103)
= 5V – 4.97
VC = 0V Approx (Closed)

From the above calculations, the maximum or peak value of the collector current in the
circuit is 7.1mA when VCE is equal to zero. And the corresponding base current for this
collector current is 56.8 µA.

So, it is clear that when the base current is increased beyond the 56.8 micro ampere,
then the transistor comes into the saturation mode. 137
 Consider the case when zero volt is applied at the
IC = VCC / RC, when VIN = 0
IC = 0V / 0.7 KΩ input. This causes the base current to be zero and as

IC = 0 the emitter is grounded, emitter base junction is not

Base Current IB = IC / β forward biased
IB = 0
Therefore, the transistor is in OFF condition and
VC = VCC – (IC * RC)
= 5V – 0 the collector output voltage is equal to 5V.
VC = 5V (Open Circuit)
138
Consider that input voltage applied is 5 volts, then the base current can be
determined by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
When VI = 5V,

IB = (VI – VBE) / RB

For silicon transistor, VBE = 0.7 V

Thus, IB = (5V – 0.7V) / 50 KΩ
= 86 µA, which is greater than 56.8 µA

Therefore, as the base current is greater than 56.8 micro ampere current, the
transistor will be driven to saturation i.e., it is fully ON, when 5V is applied at
the input. Thus, the output at the collector becomes approximately zero.

139
Practical Example

140
Practical Example of Transistor as a Switch

● The schematic below shows how a transistor is used to switch the Light Emitting
Diode (LED).
● When the switch at the base terminal is open, no current flows through the base
so the transistor is in the cutoff state. Therefore, the transistor acts as an open-
circuit and the LED becomes OFF.
● When the switch is closed, base current starts flowing through the transistor and
then drives into saturation, which results in LED to turn ON.
● Resistors are placed to limit the currents through the base and LED. It is also
possible to vary the intensity of LED by varying the resistance in the base current
path.

141
Practical Example of Transistor as a Switch

142
 Example 2 : Transistor to Operate the Relay
● It is also possible to control the relay operation using a transistor. With a small
circuit arrangement of a transistor able to energize the coil of the relay so that the
external load connected to it is controlled.
● Consider the below circuit to know the operation of a transistor to energize the
relay coil. The input applied at the base causes to drive the transistor into
saturation region, which further results the circuit becomes short circuit. So, the
relay coil gets energized and relay contacts get operated.
● In inductive loads, particularly switching of motors and inductors, sudden removal
of power can keep a high potential across the coil. This high voltage can cause
considerable damage to the rest circuit. Therefore, we have to use the diode in
parallel with inductive load to protect the circuit from induced voltages of the
inductive load.

143
Practical Example of Transistor as a Switch

144
 Example 3: Transistor to Drive the Motor

● A transistor can also be used to drive and regulate the speed of the DC motor
in a unidirectional way by switching the transistor in regular intervals of time
as shown in the below figure.
● As mentioned above, the DC motor is also an inductive load so we have to
place a freewheeling diode across it to protect the circuit.
● By switching the transistor in cutoff and saturation regions, we can turn ON
and OFF the motor repeatedly.
● It is also possible to regulate the speed of the motor from standstill to full
speed by switching the transistor at variable frequencies. We can get the
switching frequency from control device or IC like microcontroller.

145
Example 3: Transistor to Drive the Motor

146
Transistor as an Amplifier

147
Operation of BJT

● Active Region – the transistor operates as an amplifier

Ic = β*Ib

● Saturation – the transistor is “Fully-ON” operating as a switch and

Ic = I(saturation)

● Cut-off – the transistor is “Fully-OFF” operating as a switch and

Ic = 0

148
 Working of Transistor as an Amplifier

● Switching and Amplification are the two areas of applications of Transistors

and Transistor as a Switch is the basis for many digital circuits.

● Three amplifier configurations are the common-emitter, the common-base,

and the common-collector.

● The common-emitter (CE) configuration has the emitter as the common

terminal, or ground, to an ac signal. CE amplifiers exhibit high voltage
gain and high current gain.

149
150
● Fig shows a common-emitter amplifier with voltage-divider bias and coupling

capacitors C1 and C3 on the input and output and a bypass capacitor, C2,
from emitter to ground.
● The input signal, Vin, is capacitively coupled to the base terminal, the output

signal, Vout, is capacitively coupled from the collector to the load.

151
● The amplified output is 1800 out of phase with the input.

● Because the ac signal is applied to the base terminal as the input and taken
from the collector terminal as the output, the emitter is common to both the
input and output signals.

152
● There is no signal at the emitter because the bypass capacitor effectively
shorts the emitter to ground at the signal frequency.

● All amplifiers have a combination of both ac and dc operation, which must be

considered, but keep in mind that the common-emitter designation refers to the
ac operation.

153
 Phase Inversion
● The output signal is 1800 out of phase with the input signal. As the input

signal voltage changes, it causes the ac base current to change, resulting in a

change in the collector current from its Q-point value.

● If the base current increases, the collector current increases above its Q-point

value, causing an increase in the voltage drop across RC.

● This increase in the voltage across RC means that the voltage at the collector

decreases from its Q-point.

● So, any change in input signal voltage results in an opposite change in collector

signal voltage, which is a phase inversion.

154
DC Analysis
● To do this, a dc equivalent circuit is developed by removing the coupling
and bypass capacitors because they appear open as far as the dc bias is
concerned. This also removes the load resistor and signal source.

Theveninizing the bias circuit and applying Kirchhoff’s

voltage law to the base-emitter circuit,

155
156
AC Analysis

1. The capacitors C1, C2, and C3 are replaced by effective shorts because
their values are selected so that XC is negligible at the signal frequency and
can be considered to be 0 V.
2. The dc source is replaced by ground.

157
 Performance of Amplifier
Input Resistance at the Base
● To develop an expression for the ac input resistance looking in at the base, use

the simplified r-parameter model of the transistor.

158
Output Resistance
● The output resistance of the common-emitter amplifier is the resistance looking

in at the collector and is approximately equal to the collector resistor

159
Voltage Gain
● The gain is the ratio of ac output voltage at the collector (Vc) to ac input voltage

at the base (Vb).

160
Current gain
● The current gain from base to collector is Ic>Ib or βac. However, the overall

current gain of the common-emitter amplifier is

161
Power Gain
● CE amplifiers are rarely used to provide power gain. However, for
completeness, the overall power gain is the product of the overall voltage gain
(Av) and the overall current gain (Ai).

162