Data

Communication
Systems
Introduction to Data
Communications and
Networking
 Introduction
 In the Data communication world
Data generally defined as information
that is stored in Digital form.
 Data is plural.
 A single unit of data is called as
Datum.
 Again we can defined the Data
communication is the process of
transferring Digital information
between two or more points.
 Introduction
Cont..
 Information is defined as knowledge or
intelligence.
 Information that has been processed,
organized and stored is call Data.
 The fundamental purpose of a Data
communications circuits is to transfer digital
information from one place to another.
 so we can also summarized the data
communications as the Transmission,
reception and processing of Digital
information.
 Introduction
Cont..
 A network is a set of device interconnected by
media links.
 Where Previously Telecommunication had only
Voice to accommodate the advent of VLSI, low-
cost computer, Microprocessor and peripheral
equipment has dramatically increased the
need for the exchange of Digital information.
 Data communications Networks are systems
of interrelated Computers and Computers
equipment.
 Data communications can be simple or can be
very complex in nature Consists of huge
computers.
 Application of Data
Communications
 ATM
 Bank Computers
 Internets
 Workstations to Mainframe Computers
 For Airlines
 For Hotel Reservation Systems
 Mass Media and News Networks
 Electronics Mail Delivery system
 Actually the List of applications are
Endless.
 History of Data
Communications
 Previously Ancient Human Civilization
Started the art of Communication in Many
process like
Scream-Shout-Sign Language-
Picture-Number Systems-Language
 Modern Human Beings Started The use of
Fire Lamp (Greek people) for the process
of Communication and Passing one
message to other.
 During 19th century 3 major inventions
occur which gradually changes the face of
modern communication system.
 History of Data
Communications Cont..
 Telegraph By [Link]-1832
 Telephone By Graham Bell-1880
 Radio By Marconi -1897
 Morse also developed the first practical data
communication code Which is known as Morse
code.
 Telegraph is lunched in USA in 1940 and the first
message send was “What hath God Wrought!”
 Later Bell telephone Organization is credited for
the development of PC.
 Development of Internet,Intranet,WWW is create
the flood of Data for everyone.
 History of Data
Communications Cont..
 The Internet is a public data
communications Network used by
millions of people all over the world to
exchange business and personal
information.
 Internet is started around 1969.
 The WWW(World wide web) is a server
based application that allows
subscribers to access the services
offered by the web Browsers.
 1876-Alexander Graham Bell
1876 First commercial Telephone
1880 - Photophone Transmitter 1880 - Photophone Receiver
 First Mobile Radio
Telephone
 A Basic Cellular System
Information
Source

I/P O/P
Transmitter Channel Receiver
Transducer Transducer

O/P
Message
Noise

Correlated Uncorrelated
 Data communication
circuits
 Standard Organizations for
Data Communications
1) International Standard Organization (ISO)
 Created in 1946
 It creates the set of rules and standards
for graphics and document exchange and
provide models for equipment and system
compatibility, quality enhancement,
improved productivity and reduced cost.
 It is the responsibility for coordinating the
work of the others standards
organizations.
 2)International
Telecommunications Union
 It develops the recommended sets of rules
and standard for telephone and data
communications.
 It has developed three sets of specifications
 v series for modem interfacing and data
transmission over telephone lines.
 X series for data transmission over public
digital networks, email and directory series.
 I and Q services for ISDN and its extension
B- ISDN.
 3)IEEE(Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers)

1. It is an Inter national professional

organization founded in United States and
is comprised of electronic, computer and
communications engineers.
2. It is currently the world’s largest
professional society. It develops
information processing standards with
quality improvement in any field associated
with electrical and electronics engineering.
 4)ANSI(American national
standards Institute)

It serves as a national coordinating

institution for voluntary standardization
in United states.
 It is the official standard agency for
USA.
 It is a complete private and Non-
Profitable organization.
 5)EIA(Electronics Industry
association)

 It establishes and recommends

industrial standards.
 Its activities include standards
development, increasing public
awareness etc..
 6)TIA(Telecommunication
Industry association)
 It facilitates business development
opportunities and a competitive market
place through market development and
standard development.
 It represents manufactures of
communications and information
technology products and service providers
for the global market place through its
core competencies.
 7)IAB(Internet Architecture
Board)
 In 1957, ARPA, the research arm of DOD
was created by the soviet union.
 Its main aim was to accelerate the
advancement of technologies in US
military. ARPANET was initiated in late
1970’s.
 ARPA formed a committee to oversee it
which was later changed to Internet
Architecture Board (IAB).
 8)Internet Engineering Task
Force

 It is a large international community of

network designers, operators, Vendors
and researchers concerned with the
evolution of the internet architecture
and smooth operation of the internet.
 9)IRTF(Internet research
task force)

 It promotes research of importance to

the evolution of the future internet by
creating focused, long term and small
research groups working on topics
related to internet protocols,
applications, architecture and
technology.
 THE NEED FOR STANDARDS
 Over the past couple of decades many of the
networks that were built used different hardware
and software implementations, as a result they
were incompatible and it became difficult for
networks using different specifications to
communicate with each other.
 To address the problem of networks being
incompatible and unable to communicate with
each other, the International Organisation for
Standardisation (ISO) researched various network
schemes.
 The ISO recognised there was a need to create a
NETWORK MODEL that would help vendors create
interoperable network implementations.
 ISO - ORGANISATION
FOR
STANDARDISATION
 The International Organisation for
Standardisation (ISO) is an International
standards organisation responsible for a wide
range of standards, including many that are
relevant to networking.
 In 1984 in order to aid network interconnection
without necessarily requiring complete
redesign, the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) reference model was approved as an
international standard for communications
architecture.
 THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL
 The model was developed by the ISO in 1983. It is now
considered the primary Architectural model for inter-
computer communications.
 It ensures greater compatibility and interoperability
between various types of network technologies.
 The OSI model describes how information or data
makes its way from application programmes (such as
spreadsheets) through a network medium (such as
wire) to another application programme located on
another network.
 The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving
information between computers over a network medium
into SEVEN smaller and more manageable problems .
 This separation into smaller more manageable functions
is known as layering.
 A LAYERED NETWORK
MODEL
 The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of
networking into layers reduces complexity.
 Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the
protocol specification.
 Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software
or hardware on other computers.
 The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and
physical —Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are concerned with the
flow of data from end to end through the network.
 The upper four layers of the OSI model (application,
presentation and session—Layers 7, 6 and 5) are
orientated more toward services to the applications.
 Data is Encapsulated with the necessary protocol
information as it moves down the layers before network
transit.
 THE SEVEN OSI REFERENCE
MODEL
LAYERS
 LAYER 1: PHYSICAL
 The physical layer deals with the physical
characteristics of the transmission medium.
 It defines the electrical, mechanical,
procedural, and functional specifications for
activating, maintaining, and deactivating the
physical link between end systems.
 Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of
voltage changes, physical data rates,
maximum transmission distances, physical
connectors, and other similar attributes are
defined by physical layer specifications.
 Examples :- EIA/TIA-232, RJ45, NRZ.
 LAYER 2: DATA LINK
 The data link layer provides access to the
networking media and physical transmission
across the media and this enables the data to
locate its intended destination on a network.
 The data link layer provides reliable transit of data
across a physical link by using the Media Access
Control (MAC) addresses.
 The data link layer uses the MAC address to define
a hardware or data link address in order for
multiple stations to share the same medium and
still uniquely identify each other
 Examples :- Ethernet, Frame Relay, FDDI.
 LAYER 3: NETWORK
 Defines end-to-end delivery of packets.
 Defines logical addressing so that any
endpoint can be identified.
 Defines how routing works and how routes are
learned so that the packets can be delivered.
 The network layer also defines how to
fragment a packet into smaller packets to
accommodate different media.
 Routers operate at Layer 3.
 Examples :- IP, IPX, AppleTalk.
 LAYER 4: TRANSPORT
 The transport layer regulates information flow to
ensure end-to-end connectivity between host
applications reliably and accurately.
 The boundary between the transport layer and
the session layer can be thought of as the
boundary between application protocols and
data-flow protocols. Whereas the application,
presentation, and session layers are concerned
with application issues, the lower four layers are
concerned with data transport issues.
 Layer 4 protocols include TCP (Transmission
Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram
Protocol).
 LAYER 5: SESSION
 The session layer defines how to start, control and
end conversations (called sessions) between
applications.
 This includes the control and management of
multiple bi-directional messages using dialogue
control.
 It also synchronizes dialogue between two hosts'
presentation layers and manages their data
exchange.
 The session layer offers provisions for efficient
data transfer.
 Examples :- SQL, ASP (AppleTalk Session Protocol).
 LAYER 6: PRESENTATION
 The presentation layer ensures that the
information that the application layer of one
system sends out is readable by the
application layer of another system.
 If necessary, the presentation layer translates
between multiple data formats by using a
common format.
 Provides encryption and compression of data.
 Examples :- JPEG, MPEG, ASCII, EBCDIC, HTML.
 LAYER 7: APPLICATION
 The application layer is the OSI layer that is closest to
the user.
 It provides network services to the user’s applications.
 It differs from the other layers in that it does not
provide services to any other OSI layer, but rather, only
to applications outside the OSI model.
 Examples of such applications are spreadsheet
programs, word processing programs, and bank
terminal programs.
 The application layer establishes the availability of
intended communication partners, synchronizes and
establishes agreement on procedures for error recovery
and control of data integrity.
 SUMMARY
 There was no standard for networks in the early days and as
a result it was difficult for networks to communicate with
each other.
 The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO)
recognised this. and researched various network schemes,
and in 1984 introduced the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) reference model.
 The OSI reference model has standards which ensure vendors
greater compatibility and interoperability between various
types of network technologies.
 Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the
protocol specification and communicates with the same
layer’s software or hardware on other computers.
 Layers 1-4 are concerned with the flow of data from end to
end through the network and Layers 5-7 are concerned with
services to the applications.
 Alternate Protocol
suites
 The functional layers of the OSI seven-
layer protocol hierarchy do not line up
well with certain data communications
applications, such as the Internet.
 So we can see some other protocols
which are now used extensively like
1) TCP/IP Protocols
2) Cisco three layers
hierarchical model
 TCP/IP Protocol Suites
 Full form is – (Transmission control
protocol/Internet protocol)
 It was actually developed by Department
of Defence before the Inceptions of seven-
layer OSI model.
 It comprised of several relatively
independent protocols that can combine
together if the system needs.
 TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol comprised
of either three or four layers.
 The term hierarchical means that the
upper level protocol are supported by one
or more lower level protocols.
 TCP/IP Protocol Suites
Cont..
 The three layer version of TCP/IP contains
the Network, Transport and application
layers which resides above two layers
protocols-Physical and Data link layers.
a) Network layer: It provides Internet-
working functions.
- It is also sometimes called as Internet
layer. TCP

b) transport layers: It contains two protocols

UDP
 TCP/IP Protocol Suites
Cont..
- TCP allows two applications layers to
communicate with each other.
c) Application Layer-It contains several
other protocols that users and
program utilize to perform the
functions of the Three uppermost
layers of OSI model. (Application,
Presentations and Session layers.)
 TCP/IP Protocol Suites
 Cont..
The four layer version of TCP/IP contains the
Network access, Internet, Host-to-host and
Process layers.
a) Network access layers provides a means of
physically delivering data packets using
frame or cells.
b) Internet layers contains the information that
related to how the data can be routed
through the Network
c) Host-to-host layers handles the reliability
and session aspects of Data transmissions.
d) Process layers provides applications support.
 Cisco three layers
hierarchical model
 Cisco Defines three layers logical
hierarchical which specifies-
- Where this belongs
- How they fit together
- What functions Go where
The three layers of Cisco models are
a) Core layers
b) Distribution Layers
c) Access layers
 Cisco three layers
hierarchical model
a) Core layers functions Cont..
is to switch traffic
as quickly as possible.
- It is responsible for transporting
large amounts of data traffic reliably
and quickly.
b) It is the communications point between
the access and the core layers.
- It determines the fastest way to
handle service requests.
c) Access layers controls work group and
networking resources.
 Serial and parallel Data
Transmission
Signals, Noise, Modulation and
Demodulation
Digital signal
Layered Network Architecture
 Data Communications
network
 Group of computers connected together
can be called a data communications
network.

 The process of sharing resources between

computers over a data communications
network is called networking.

 The most important considerations of a

data communications network are
performance, transmission rate, reliability,
and security.
 Data Communications
network
 Data Communications
network
 Factors involved in designing a
computer network are
 Network goals as defined by
organizational management.
 Network security
 Network uptime requirements
 Network response-time requirements
 Network and resource costs
 Network Components , Functions,
and features
 Servers
 holds shared files, programs, and the
network operating systems.
 provides access to network resources to all
users of the network.
LOS and NOS
 Network classification
 Networks are classified by size, which
includes geographic area, distance
between stations, number of computers,
transmission speed, transmission media
and network’s physical layer architecture.
Network

LAN GAN

WAN MAN
 Local area network
(LAN)
 Privately owned data communications
networks
 10-100 computers are connected sharing
the data resources
 Speed ranges from 10Mbps to 100Mbps
 Relatively small geographic area- small
room
building or building complex
within a few miles or closer
Mostly owned by company or
organizations
 Metropolitan area network
(MAN)
 High speed network similar to LAN
 Occupies entire city
 Supports transmission of data, voice
and in some cases video.
 1.5Mbps-10Mbps speed
 LAN to LAN form a MAN
 Eg. cable television
 Wide area network
(WAN)
 Oldest type
 Slow speed and large coverage over
entire country or even continent.
 Connects cities and states
 1.5Mbps- 2.4Gbps speed covering 100
to 1000 miles
 Eg ATM
 Global area network
 Connects countries across entire globe
 1.5Mbps- 100Gbps speed
 E.g. Internet
 NOISE
 Definition- Undesirable electrical energy
that falls within pass band signal.
Or
- Unwanted form of signal.
 Noise is of two types-

a) Correlated Noise- It is exists only

when the signal is present.
b) Un correlated Noise- It is present all the
time whether the signal is present or not.
 NOISE Cont..
 Un correlated Noise- It is divided
into 2 types
i) External Noise-
Atmospheric Noise, Extraterrestrial
Noise, Man-made Noise
ii) Internal Noise- Shot-
Noise, Transit-Time Noise, Thermal
Noise
 Signal-to-Noise power
 ratio
It is the ratio of the signal power level to
the thermal noise power level.
 Signal-to-noise power ratio is expressed as
 S / N = Ps/Pn
where
S / N signal-to-noise power ratio (unit
less)
PS - signal power (watts)
PN – noise power (watts)
Expressed as a logarithmic functions-
S/N (dB)= 10 Log Ps/Pn
 Noise figure (NF) and Noise Factor (F) are
figures of merit used to indicate how much
the S/N ratio deteriorates as a signal
passes through a circuits or series of
Circuits.
 F = i/p S/N Ratio/ o/p S/N Ratio (unit less)

 NF (dB) = 10 Log i/p S/N Ratio/ o/p S/N

Ratio
Or
NF (dB) = 10 Log F
 BANDWIDTH
 Definition: The bandwidth of an information
signal is simply the difference between the
highest and lowest frequencies contained in
the information.
Or

 Bandwidth of a communication channel is

the difference between the highest and
lowest frequencies that the channel will
allow to pass through it. (i.e. its
pass band)
 Information Unit: Bit
 Information Capacity Unit: Bit rate ( BPS)
 Baud: It is the rate of change of a signal
on the transmission medium after the
Encoding and modulation process is
occurred.
- So Baud is the unit of Modulation
Rate, symbol Rate and Transmission Rate.
Baud= 1/ts
ts= Time of one signaling
element( seconds)
 Digital Modulation
It is the process of transmittal of the
digitally modulated analog signal
(carriers) between two or more points in
a communication system.
 Now all traditionally electronics
communication system that use
AM,FM,PM are rapidly replaced by Digital
modulation systems.
 Advantages: - Ease of processing
- Ease of Multiplexing
- Noise Immunity
 M- ary Encoding
 M-ary is the term derived from the word
binary.
 M represents a digit that corresponds to the
number of conditions, levels, or combinations
possible for a given number of binary
variables.
 For example a digital signal with four possible
conditions is an M-ary system where M=4.
 If there are 8 conditions then M=8 and so on.
 M- ary encoding
 This can be mathematically expressed as
N = log 2 M
where
N = number of bits necessary
M = number of levels, conditions,
combinations possible with N bits
The number of conditions possible with N
Bits as
2n = M
 Assignments-1
1) Explain in brief the standard organization
for Data communications? Why we need
Standard Organization?
2) Explain in detail all the layers of OSI model?
3) Explain about the two alternate protocol
suites? Which one is more popular?
4) What is Noise? Analyze the types and
classification of Noise briefly?
5) Write short notes about Information
capacity,Bits,Bit Rate, Baud and M-ary
Encoding?
6) Classify the types of Network?