UNIT – I

NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS
 OVERVIEW
• Introduction to Networks

• Categories of Networks

• Communication Model

• Data Transmission Concepts and Terminology

• Protocol Architecture

• Protocols

• OSI

• TCP/IP
• LAN Topology
• Transmission Media
 Introduction to Networks
• A Network: A group of devices that can
communicate with each other over links.
• Each device is called a host. Each host has a
unique address.
• Network is a connection between two or
more devices.
• Which is connected by a communication
links.
• A node can be computer, printer or any
other devices which is capable of sending
and receiving information at each other.
Example:
 INTERNET
• An internet:

each host has an

address of the form n/h where n is the
network number and h is the number of the
host on network n.
 Uses of Network

• It is Used for

i) Business Application
ii) Home Application
iii) Mobile Users
iv) E-Mail
 Categories or Types of Network
• There are Three Types:
1. LAN - Local Area Network
2. MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
3. WAN – Wide Area Network
1. LAN - Local Area Network
A LAN is Designed by Local Area Connections such as:
i) within Building
ii) within office
iii) within Campus
iv) within Specific Place
Advantages :
1) Sharing of Files.
2) Sharing of Programs.
3) Communication Exchange.

Disadvantages :
1) Reliability.
2) Capacity.
3) High Cost.
2. MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a
network that interconnects users with
computer resources in a geographic area or
region larger than that covered by even a
large local area network (LAN) but smaller
than the area covered by a wide area
network (WAN).
• MAN supports up to 150 Kilometers Distance.
• Example:
 Telephone Network
 Cable TV
Advantages :
1) High Bandwidth.
2) It support Large number of Clients.
3) Reduce the Errors.

Disadvantages :
1) Large Space Requirements.
2) Slower Data Access.
3) High Cost.
3. WAN – Wide Area Network
• WAN Provide a Long Distance Transmission of Data.
• By Using WAN Exchange the Information from one
country to another country.
 Components of Network
- Which gives the Request.
- Which gives the Response.
- It Indicates Modulator / Demodulator.
- Which identifies the Path between Client
& Server.
- Which overcomes the Traffic
problems.
 Communication Model
• Data communications are exchange of
data between two devices via some
transmission medium.
• It should be done in two ways
i) Local - It takes LAN Connection.
ii) Remote - It takes Long distance like
MAN & WAN.
• Data should be Transferred in the form of
0’s and 1’s
 Transmission
Source
Medium Destination

1) Delivery - The System must deliver the data to

the correct Destination.
2) Accuracy - The System must deliver the data at
Accurate way.
3) Timeline - The System must deliver the data at Exact
Time.

4) Jitter - It refers to the variable in the

i) Sender iv) Message

ii) Receiver v) Protocol
iii) Medium
5. Protocol 5. Protocol
Step : 1 4. Message
Step : 1
Step : 2 Step : 2

1. Sender 3. Medium 2. Receiver

 : It is a device , that Sends the
information to the Receiver.
: It is a device , that Receives the
information from the Sender.
: It is the physical path between
Sender to Receiver.
: This is the passing Informations.
: It is a set of rules and regulations
that “ Governed “ from data communication.
• Data Transmission occurs between sender and
receiver over some Transmission Medium or
Transmission Media.
• Transmission Media may be classified into Two
Types :
i) Guided Media [Wired Technology]
ii) Unguided Media [Wireless Technology]
i) Guided Media (Wired Network)
• In Guided Media Signals are Passed in a “ same
physical path”
• Example:
i) Twisted pair Cable
ii) Coaxial Cable
iii) Fiber Optic Cable
ii) Unguided Media (Wireless Network)
• In Unguided Media Signals are Passed in the
form of “ Electromagnetic Waves”
• Example :
i) Mobile phones
ii) Satellite microwave
iii) Infrared
 It Provides
a dedicated links between two devices.
• For example, a wired system that connects two
computers together can be thought of a point-
to-point link.
 It is a link between
two or more devices. It is also known as Multi-
Point configuration. The networks having
multipoint configuration are called
 Transmission Mode
 It refers to the direction of information flow
between two devices.
 Data flow is the flow of data between 2
points.
 The direction of the data flow can be
described as
 Simplex Mode
 Half-Duplex Mode
 Full-Duplex Mode
 Simplex: Data flows in only one direction on
the data communication line (medium).
Examples are Radio and Television broadcasts.
 Half-Duplex: Data flows in both directions
but only one direction at a time on the data
communication line.
Ex. Conversation on walkie-talkies.
 Full-Duplex: Data flows in both directions
simultaneously. Modems are configured to flow
data in both directions.
Ex. Phone Conversation
 Data Flow

Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

 Protocol Architecture
• It is a layered structure of H/W and S/W that
supports exchange of data b/w systems
• It supports distributed applications(E-Mail,
File Transfer)
• Each layer of protocol architecture provides
some set of rules
• There are 2 widely used protocol
architecture
TCP/IP Architecture
OSI Model
 Protocol
• Protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communication
• It represents what is communicated, when it
is communicated and how it is
communicated.
• There are 3 key elements
Syntax
Semantics
Timing
 Syntax
• It represents structure, Format of data the
order in which it is presented
Data may contain:
• First 8 bit -> Sender Address
• Second 8 bit -> Receiver Address
• Remaining bits-> message stream
 SEMANTICS

• It refers the meaning of each section of bit

TIMING

• It refers when data sent and how fast it is sent

(Says Characteristics)
• Ex:100Mbps
• It provides model for the development of
product regardless of individual manufacturer
• It falls in 2 categories
 De Facto standard

• Not officially adopted but used widespread

• It has 2 categories
• Proprietary->Wholly owned by company
• Non-Proprietary->Group or communiy
developed for public
 De Jure Standard
• A Standard Legislated by an officially
recognized body

Standard Organizations:
• International Standard Organization
• ANSI
• IEEE
 The OSI Model
• An ISO (International standard Organization) that
covers all aspects of network communications is the
Open System Interconnection (OSI) model.
• An open system is a model that allows any two
different systems to communicate regardless of their
underlying architecture (hardware or software).
• The OSI model is not a protocol; it is model for
understanding and designing a network architecture
that is flexible, robust and interoperable.
• The OSI model is a layered framework for the
design of network systems that allows for
communication across all types of computer
systems.
• The OSI model is built of seven ordered layers:
1. (Layer 1) Physical layer
2. (Layer 2) Data link layer
3. (Layer 3) Network layer
4. (Layer 4) Transport layer
5. (Layer 5) Session layer
6. (Layer 6) Presentation layer
7. (Layer 7) Application layer
 Peer-to-Peer Process
• Within a single machine, each layer calls upon services of
the layer just below it.
• Layer 3, for example, uses the services provided by layer
2 and provides services for layer 4.
• Between machines, layer x on one machine communicates
with layer x on another machine, by using a protocol (this
is Peer-to-Peer Process).
• Communication between machines is therefore a peer-to-
peer process using protocols appropriate to a given layer.
 Interfaces between Layers
• There is an interface between each pair of
adjacent layers. This interface defines what
information and services a layer must provide
for the layer above it.
 Functions of Layers
1. Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for transmitting
individual bits from one node to the next.
 Physical layer
The physical layer is concerned with the following:
• Physical characteristics of interfaces and
media: It define the type of transmission media
• Representation of the bits: the physical layer
data consist of a stream of bits(0,1). The
transmitted bits must be encoded into signals –
electrical or optical. The physical layer defines
the type of encoding.
• Data rate: The physical layer defines the
transmission rate, the number of bits sent each
second.
 Physical Layer
• Line configuration: the physical layer is
concerned with the connection of devices
to the medium.
• Physical topology – Ring, star
• Transmission Mode - Simplex, Half
duplex Full Duplex
 2. Data Link Layer
• It is responsible for node-to-node delivery of data.
Functions of the Data Link Layer:
• Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits
received from the network layer into data units called
frames.

• Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to

different systems on the network, the data link layer
adds a header to the frame to define the physical
address of the sender (source address) and/or receiver
(destination address) of the frame.

• If the frame is intended for a system outside the

sender’s network, the receiver address is the address of
the device that connects one network to the next.
• Flow Control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by
the receiver is less than the rate produced in the sender, the
data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to
prevent overwhelming the receiver.
• Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the
physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect and
retransmit damaged or lost frames. Error control is
normally achieved through a trailer to the end of the frame.

• Access Control. When two or more devices are connected

to the same link, data link layer protocols are necessary to
determine which device has control over the link at any
time.
 3. Network Layer
•The Network layer is responsible for the source-to-
destination
delivery of a packet possible across multiple
networks.
•It converts Frames into packets.

•If two systems are connected to the same link,

there is usually no need for a network layer.
However, if the two systems are attached to different
networks, there is often a need for the network layer
to accomplish source-to-destination delivery.
 Network Layer
Functions:
•Logical addressing-Physical addressing (May change) handle
addressing problem locally
•If packet pass the network boundary, we need another addressing
called logical addressing (Never change)
•Routing - Route the packet to final destination

The network layer is responsible for the delivery of packets from the original
source to the final destination.
 4. Transport Layer

• The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process

or end-end delivery of the entire message.
• The network layer oversees host-to-destination delivery of
individual packets, it does not recognize any relationship
between those packets.
• The transport layer ensures that the whole message arrives
intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow
control at the process-to-process level.
 Transport layer

The transport layer is responsible for delivery of a message from

one process to another.
 Functions of the Transport layer

Service point addressing:

Computer often run several processes (running programs)
at the same time. Process-to-process delivery means
delivery from a specific process on one computer to a
specific process on the other.
• The transport layer header include a type of address
called port address.
• The network layer gets each packet to the correct
computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the
correct process on that computer.
 Cont..
,
• Segmentation and reassembly: a message is divided
into transmittable segments, each having a sequence
number. These numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly upon arrival at the
destination.
• Connection control: The transport layer can be either
connectionless or connection-oriented.
• A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an
independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer at
the destination machine.
• A connection-oriented transport layer makes a connection
with the transport layer at the destination machine first
before delivering the packets. After all the data are
transferred, the connection is terminated.
 Functions of the transport layer
• Flow control: the transport layer performs a flow control
end to end. The data link layer performs flow control
across a single link.
• Error control: the transport layer performs error control
end to end. The data link layer performs control across a
single link.
• Congestion control concerns controlling traffic entry into
a telecommunication networks so as to avoid congestive
collapse by attempting to avoid oversubscription of any of
the processing or link capabilities of the intermediate
nodes and networks and taking resource reducing steps,
such as reducing the rate of sending packets. It should not
be confused with flow control, which prevents the sender
from overwhelming the receiver.
 5. Session Layer
• The session layer is responsible for dialog control
and synchronization.
 Functions of Session Layer

• Decision Control:- Half duplex, Full

Duplex
• Synchronization: Adding checkpoints to
stream data.
• Ex: System sending 2000 pages.
• Add check point after each 100th page.
• So in case of failure no need to sent whole
page.
 6. Presentation Layer
• It is concerned with the syntax and semantics
of the information exchanged b/w 2 devices.
 Functions of Presentation Layer
• Translation: Interoperability b/w different
encoding formats.
• Encryption: Converting plain to cipher text
and vice versa.
• Compression: Reducing number of bits in
multimedia data when transmitting.
 7. Application layer
The application layer is responsible for providing
services to the user.
 Functions of Application Layer

• It provides user access to network.

• X.500-Directory service.
• X.400-Message handling service.
• FTAM- File Transfer Access and
management.
• Network Virtual Terminal.
• Transmission Control Protocol /
Internetworking Protocol is used in the
internet and is developed prior to the OSI
model.
• It would not match exactly with OSI model
• It is divided into layers.
TCP/IP protocol
• It contains relatively independent protocols
that can mixed and matched with depend
on needs of the system.
• It defines the Physical (or) Logical
arrangement of Links in a Network.
• Topology refers to the layout of connected
devices in a network.
• The Topology of the Network is Geometric
Representation of the relationship
between all Communication links.
 Types of Topology

i) Mesh Topology
ii) Star Topology
iii) Tree Topology
iv) Bus Topology
v) Ring Topology
vi) Hybrid Topology
 Types of Topology

• Here every device has a direct point to point

link between every other device.
• A fully connected mesh can have n(n-1)/2
physical channels to link n devices.
if n=5 (Number of Nodes)
5(5-1)/2 = 10 ( Communication Links)
• 5 Nodes are Connected by using 10
Communication Links
Mesh Topology
 Mesh Topology
Advantages:
• It eliminate the traffic problem.
• It is robustness.
• It has privacy and security.
• Fault can be easily found.
 Mesh Topology
Disadvantages:
• More number of cables to be used.
• Every devices must be connected to some
other devices. So installation process is very
difficult.
 Types of Topology

• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link

between only a central controller or “HUB”.
• The devices are not directly linked to some
other devices.
• If one device wants to send data to another
device, it sends to the central controller and
the Central controller send to other device.
 Star Topology
Star Topology Diagram:

A B

Central controller
(or)
HUB

C D
 Star Topology
Advantages :
• Less expensive than Mess topology.
• Less number of cables to be used.
• It is robustness.
 Star Topology
Disadvantages:
• Each device must connected to central
controller.
• It require more installation process.
• If central controller failure means all the
devices should be failed.
 Types of Topology

• Tree topology has some variation from star

topology.
• The nodes in the tree are linked to the central
controller.
• The primary HUB in the tree is represented by
“Active Hub”.
• The secondary HUB in the tree is represented by
“Passive Hub”.
Tree Topology
 Tree Topology
Advantages:
• It allows more devices to be attached in a
single central controller.
• It allows the network to prioritize the
communication.
 Tree Topology
Disadvantages:
• Each device must be linked to central
controller.
• It require more installation processes.
• If central controller failure means entire
system should fail down.
 Types of Topology

• A Bus topology describes the multipoint

configuration.
• One long cable act as a backbone to link all the
devices in a network.
• Devices are connected in a bus topology with
the help of “Drop lines” and “Tapes”.
 Bus Topology
Bus Topology Diagram:

A B C D

Back bone Drop line Drop line Tape Back

bone
 Bus Topology
Advantages:
• Installation process is very easy.
• Redundancy can be eliminated.
• Less number of cables to be used.
 Bus Topology
Disadvantages:
• Reconfiguration is very difficult.
• Very difficult to adding (or) deleting of a
devices
 Types of Topology

• In Ring Topology each device has dedicated

point-to-point link between other devices.
• The signals are passed along the “ring” in only
one direction from device to device.
• Each devices in a ring should have a
“Repeater”.
 Ring Topology
Ring Topology Diagram:

D B
Ring

C
 Ring Topology
Advantages:
• Easy to install and reconfigure.
• Fault can be easily identified.
 Ring Topology
Disadvantages:
• It is unidirectional traffic.
• In rings if one device gets failure then the
entire system should be failed.
VI. Hybrid Topology

 Combination of all topology is called

hybrid topology.
The physical path between transmitter and
receiver.
• Repeaters or amplifiers may be used to
extend the length of the medium.
• Communication of electromagnetic waves
is guided or unguided.
Twisted-pair cable
UTP and STP
Coaxial Cable
 BNC connectors
•To connect coaxial cable to devices, it is necessary to use coaxial
connectors. The most common type of connector is the Bayone-Neill-
Concelman, or BNC, connectors.

Applications include cable TV networks, and some traditional

Ethernet LANs like 10Base-2, or 10-Base5.
Optical fibers
Propagation Modes (Types of Optical Fiber )
Propagation Modes
THANK YOU
 UNIT II DATA LINK LAYER

Data link control – Error Detection – VRC

– LRC – CRC – Checksum – Error
Correction – Hamming Codes – MAC –
Ethernet, Token ring , Token Bus –
Wireless LAN - Bluetooth – Bridges.
 UNIT – II

DATA LINK LAYER

• Data Link Control
OVERVIEW
• Error Detection
• VRC
• LRC
• CRC
• Checksum
• Error Correction
• Hamming Codes
• MAC
• Ethernet
• Token ring
• Token Bus
• Wireless LAN
• Bluetooth
• Bridges
 Data Link Control
Communication
Minimum 2 devices are needed for data
communication. So line discipline is necessary
for co-operation b/w 2 devices.
The 2 important functions of data link layer
is flow control and error control.This
functions are otherwise called as Data link
control.
 Line Discipline
It coordinates the link system
It is done in 2 ways
◦ ENQ (Enquiry)
 Used in peer – peer communication
 Enquire whether there is a required link b/w
two devices
 Check whether the intended device is capable to receive

◦ ACK (Acknowledgment)

 Used in Primary secondary communication

 The intended device will acknowledge about its status to the
receiver
There are 2 categories in line
discipline
ENQ/ACK Line Discipline
 Select
It is a line discipline used in topologies
with primary secondary relationship.
Select
It is uses whenever the primary device
has something to send.ie)Primary
controls the link.
Select
Select
 Poll

The polling function is used by the

primary device to Select transmissions
from the secondary devices.
If the primary device is ready to receive
data , It ask each device in turn if it has
anything to send.
Poll
 Flow Control
It is a set of procedures to tell the sender
how much data it can transmit before it must
wait for an acknowledgement from the
receiver.
Two categories of flow control:
◦ Stop-and-wait
Send one frame at a time.
◦ Sliding window
Send several frames at a time.
 Stop-and-wait
Sender sends one frame and waits for an
acknowledgement before sending the next frame.
 Stop-and-wait
Advantages:
◦ Simplicity.
◦ Each frame is checked and acknowledged
before the next frame is sent.
Disadvantages:
◦ Slow.
Can add significantly to the total transmission time
if the distance between devices is long.
◦ Inefficiency
Each frame is alone on the line.
 SlidingWindow
Sender can send several frames before
needing an acknowledgement.
Advantages:
◦ The link can carry several frames at once.
◦ Its capacity can be used efficiently.
Error Control
Error Detection
Error Detection
 Even number of ones
–add 0
Odd number of ones
– add 1

Can detect all single-bit errors. Can detect burst errors only if the total
number of errors in each data unit is odd.
• Increases the likelihood of detecting burst errors.
• n bits LRC can detect a burst error of n bits.
• Errors may be undetected if:
• Have even number of errors in that position.
 You will experience a painful
sharpening from time to time, but
this is required if you are to become
a better pencil.
Error Correction
Redundancy Bits
You have the
ability to
correct any
mistakes you
might make.
Hamming Codes-Error correction
Hamming codes, like polynomial codes,
are appended to the transmitted message

Hamming codes, unlike polynomial codes,

contain the information necessary to
locate a single bit error
 Calculating the Hamming Code
The key to the Hamming Code is the use of extra parity bits to allow the
identification of a single error. Create the code word as follows:
◦ Mark all bit positions that are powers of two as parity bits. (positions 1, 2, 4, 8, 16,
32, 64,etc.)
◦ All other bit positions are for the data to be encoded. (positions 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10,
11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, etc.)
◦ Each parity bit calculates the parity for some of the bits in the code word.The
position of the parity bit determines the sequence of bits that it alternately
checks and skips.
Position 1: check 1 bit, skip 1 bit, check 1 bit, skip 1 bit, etc.(1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15,...)
Position 2: check 2 bits, skip 2 bits, check 2 bits, skip 2 bits,etc.
(2,3,6,7,10,11,14,15,...)
Position 4: check 4 bits, skip 4 bits, check 4 bits, skip 4 bits,etc.
(4,5,6,7,12,13,14,15,20,21,22,23,...)
Position 8: check 8 bits, skip 8 bits, check 8 bits, skip 8bits, etc. (8-15,24-31,40-
47,...)
Position 16: check 16 bits,skip 16 bits,check 16 bits,skip 16 bits,etc.(16-31,48-
63,80-95,...)
Position 32: check 32 bits,skip 32 bits,check 32 bits,skip 32 bits,etc.(32-63,96-
127,160-191,...)
etc.
◦ Set a parity bit to 1 if the total number of ones in the positions it checks is odd.
Set a parity bit to 0 if the total number of ones in the positions it checks is even.
Position of Redundancy bit in
Hamming code
Error
Error Control
Stop-and-Wait A R Q
Sliding window A R Q
 MAC
IEEE has subdivided(Project 802) the data
link layer into two sub layers:
◦ Logical Link Control
◦ Medium access control
Functions of MAC
It resolves the contention of shared media
It contains all information to move information
from one place to another
It contains the physical address of next station
to route packet.
MAC protocol are specific to LAN
 The project 802 which governs internet working. Here each
subdivision is identified by a number
802.1(internetworking)
802.2(LLC)
and MAC modules
802.3(CSMA/CD)
802.4(Tokenbus)
802.5(Tokenring)
Figure 13.1 IEEE standard for LANs
MAC protocol are specific to LAN
LAN is a Local Area Network used for
communication inside building
Protocols for LAN are,
◦ Ethernet
◦ Token Ring
◦ Token bus
◦ FDDI
 IEEE STANDARDS

Ethernet: It is a LAN protocol that is used in Bus and Star topologiesand

implements CSMA/CD as the medium access method

Original (traditional) Ethernet developed in 1980 by

three companies: Digital, Intel, Xerox (DIX).

In 1985, the Computer Society of the IEEE started a

project, called Project 802, to set standards to enable
intercommunication among equipment from a variety of
manufacturers.
 Current version is called IEEE Ethernet
◦ IEEE 802.3 supports LAN standard Ethernet
◦ IEEE802.3 defines two categories
Baseband
Broadband
◦ Base band has five different category
10Base5
10Base2
10BaseT
1Base5 etc.,
◦ Broad band has a category
10Broad36
Access Method:CSMA/CD
When multiple user access the single line ,there is a
danger of signals overlapping and destroying each
other(Traffic) .such an overlap is called Collisions.
To avoid this the access method used in Ethernet is
carrier sense multiple access/collision detection
In CSMA any workstation wishing to transmit must
listen to existing traffic on the line
If no voltage is detected ,line is considered idle
CSMA cuts down the number of collisions, but cant
eliminate. Collisions still occur if both station try to
listen at a time.
Figure 13.4 802.3 MAC frame
 IEEE Ethernet
In IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Data link layer is split into two sublayers:
◦ Bottom part: MAC
The frame is called IEEE 802.3
Handles framing, MAC addressing, MediumAccess control
Specific implementation for each LAN protocol
Defines CSMA/CD as the access method for Ethernet LANs
and Token passing
method for Token Ring.
Implemented in hardware
◦ Top part: LLC (Logical Link Control)
The subframe is called IEEE 802.2
Provides error and flow control ifneeded
It makes the MAC sublayer transparent
Allows interconnectivity between different LANs data link layers
Used to multiplex multiple network layer protocols in the data link
layer
frame
Implemented in software
Ethernet Provides Unreliable, connectionless Service
◦ Ethernet data link layer protocol provides
connectionless service to the network layer
No handshaking between sending and receiving
adapter.
◦ Ethernet protocol provides Unreliable service to the
network layer :
Receiving adapter doesn’t send ACK or NAK to
sending adapter
This means stream of datagrams passed to network
layer can have gaps (missing data)
Gaps will be filled if application is using reliable transport layer
protocol
Otherwise, application will see the gaps
 Ethernet

 Ethernet Frame format

FCS

FCS

Frame formats. (a) DIX Ethernet ,(b) IEEE

802.3.
Ethernet Frame
PREAMBLE
◦ 8 bytes with pattern 10101010 used to synchronize receiver, sender clock rates.
◦ In IEEE 802.3, eighth byte is start of frame (10101011)
Addresses: 6 bytes (explained latter)
Type (DIX)
◦ Indicates the type of the Network layer protocol being carried in the payload
(data) field, mostly IP but others may be supported such as IP (0800), Novell IPX
(8137) and AppleTalk (809B),ARP (0806) )
◦ Allow multiple network layer protocols to be supported on a single machine
(multiplexing)
◦ Its value starts at 0600h (=1536 in decimal)
Length (IEEE 802.3): number of bytes in the data field.

◦ Maximum 1500 bytes (= 05DCh)

CRC: checked at receiver, if error is detected, the frame is discarded
◦ CRC-32
Data: carries data encapsulated from the upper-layer protocols
Pad: Zeros are added to the data field to make the minimum data length = 46 bytes
Ethernet address
 Six bytes = 48 bits
 Flat address not hierarchical
 Burned into the NIC ROM
First three bytes from left specify the vendor. Cisco 00-00-
0C, 3Com 02-60-8C and the last 24 bit should be created
uniquely by the company
 Destination Address can be:
 Unicast: second digit from left is even (one recipient)
 Multicast: Second digit from left is odd (group of stations
to receive the frame – conferencing applications)
 Broadcast (ALL ones) (all stations receive the frame)
 Source address is always Unicast
Figure 13.3 Ethernet evolution through four generations
 Categories of traditional Ethernet

•<data rate><Signaling method><Max segment length or cable type>

 IEEE 802.3 Cable Types
Name Cable Max. Max Cable Nodes
Toplogy
Segment /segment
Length
10Base5 thick coax 500 meters 100
Bus

10Base2 thin coax 185 meters 30

Bus

10BaseT twisted pair 100 meters 1 Star

10BaseF Fiber Optic 2Km 1

Star
Figure 13.10 10Base5 implementation
Connection of stations to the medium using 10Base2
 10BaseT
• Uses twisted pair Cat3 cable
 Star-wire topology

• A hub functions as a repeater with additional functions

• Fewer cable problems, easier to troubleshoot than coax
• Cable length at most 100 meters
Figure 13.12 10Base-T implementation
Figure 13.13 10Base-F implementation
 Fast Ethernet

100 Mbps transmission rate

same frame format, media access, and collision
detection rules as 10 Mbps Ethernet
can combine 10 Mbps Ethernet and Fast Ethernet
on same network using a switch
media: twisted pair (CAT 5) or fiber optic cable
(no coax)
Star-wire topology
◦ Similar to 10BASE-T

CAT 3
CAT 5
Figure 13.19 Fast Ethernet topology
Figure 13.20 Fast Ethernet implementations
 Gigabit Ethernet

Speed 1Gpbs
Minimum frame length is 512 bytes
Operates in full/half duplex modes mostly
full duplex
In the full-duplex mode of Gigabit Ethernet,
there is no collision;
the maximum length of the cable is
determined by the signal attenuation
in the cable.
Figure 13.23 Gigabit Ethernet implementations
10Gbps Ethernet
 Maximum link distances cover 300 m to 40 km
 Full-duplex mode only
 No CSMA/CD
 Uses optical fiber only
 Token Ring
It allows each station to sent one frame
.
The access control mechanism used by
Ethernet is inefficient sometimes because
of collision.
It solves the collision problem by passing
token
Initially a station waits for token, if a
token is free the station may send a data
frame
 Cont..,
This frame proceeds around the ring ,being
regenerated by each station .Each station
examines the destination address finds the
frame is addressed to another station and relays
it to its neighbor.
The intended recipient recognizes its own
address and copies the message and set the
address bit
The token finally reach the sender and it
recognizes that the data is delivered through
address bit
Token is passed from NIC to NIC
Token Ring
 Token Bus
It combines the feature of token ring and
Ethernet
 FDDI
• Fiber Distributed Data Interface
• local area network protocol standardized by ANSI
• 100-Mbps token passing
• Dual-ring LAN
• A high-speed backbone technology
• High bandwidth
• Optical fiber transmission
• Allows up to 1000 stations
FDDI Architecture
 Components of FDDI
• Fiber optic cable
• A concentrator (ring)
• Stations: 2 types
• DAS (Dual Attachment Station) or Class
A:
• Connected to both the rings
• SAS (Single Attachment Station) or Class
B:
• Connected to primary ring
 FDDI Frame Format

Similar to token ring

frame
Networking and internetworking
devices:
An internet is a interconnection of
individual network. So to create a internet
we need a internetworking devices. ie)
Linking a number of LAN’s
Internet - W W W
internet-Interconnection of LAN
Why Interconnect?
• To separate / connect one corporate division with another.
• To connect two LANs with differentprotocols.
• To connect a LAN to the Internet.
• To break a LAN into segments to relieve traffic congestion.
• To provide a security wall between two different types ofusers.
 Connecting Devices

Internetworking
Networking Devices
Devices

Repeaters Bridges Routers Gateways

Introduction
• Many times it is necessary to connect a local area network to another local
area network or to a wide area network.
• Local area network to local area network connections are usually performed
with a bridge.
• Local area network to wide area network connections are usually performed
with a router.
• A third device, the switch, can be used to interconnect segmentsof a local
area network.
Connecting Devices

Hub

98/
25
 Repeater:
A repeater is a regenerator, not an
amplifier
A repeater installed on a link receives the
signal before it becomes too weak or
corrupted ,regenerates the original bit
pattern, and put the refreshed copy back
onto the link.
 Gateways:

A gateway is a protocol convertor.

It accepts a packet format for one
protocol(e.g., Apple Talk) and convertsit
into a packet format for another
protocol(e.g.,TCP/IP).
A gateway

SNA network (IBM)

Netware network (Novell)

104
/ 25
 Bridges
Divide a large network into smaller segment
It filters the traffic . It contains logic(Bridge
table) that allows them to keep the traffic for
each segment separate.
Ie) Isolating and controlling the link problems
(e.g.congestion)
Bridges have look-up table that contains physical
address of every station connected to it.

105
/ 25
Bridge

108
/ 25
When aframe enters a bridge ,it checks the address of
the destination and forward the new copy only to the
segment to which the address which belongs
 Types
Simple
Multiport
Transparent
Remote
Source routing
 Simple Bridge
It is aless expensive type of bridge
It links 2 segments (LANS) and lists the
address of all the stations in table
included in each of them.
Here address must be entered manually.
The table is modified when stations are
added and removed.
 Multiport Bridge
It is used to connect more than two LANS.
So the bridge has 3 tables.
Here address must be entered manually
Transparent Bridge:
• A transparent or learning bridge builds its table of
station on its own (automatically).
• The table is empty when it is installed, it builds its table
when it encounters the packet for transmission. It
uses the source address for building table.
• It identifies the changes and update the table when
system moved from one station to another
Multiport bridge

113
/ 25
 Cont.,
Bridges are normally installed
redundantly,that is two LANS may be
connected by more than one bridge.in
this cases they may create a loop.
So packet may go round and round,It can
be avoided by algorithms like
◦ Spannig tree algorithm
◦ Source routing
Function of a bridge

115
/ 25
 Data Communications and Computer Networks

Remote Bridges
•A remote bridge is capable of passing a data frame
from one local area network to another when the two
LANs are separated by a long distance and there is a
wide area network connecting the two LANs.
•A remote bridge takes the frame before it leaves the
first LAN and encapsulates the WAN headers and
trailers.
•When the packet arrives at the destination remote
bridge, that bridge removes the WAN headers and
trailers leaving the original frame.
 Data Communications and Computer Networks

Switches
•A switch is a combination of a hub and a bridge (multi-
port bridge).
•It can interconnect two or more workstations, but like a
bridge, it observes traffic flow and learns.
•When a frame arrives at a switch, the switch examines the
destination address and forwards the frame out the one
necessary connection.
•Workstations that connect to a hub are on a shared
segment.
•Workstations that connect to a switch are on a switched
segment.
Wireless LANs
 LAN/WLAN World
 LANs provide connectivity for interconnecting
computing resources at the local levels of an
organization
 Wired LANs
Limitations because of physical,hard-
wired infrastructure
 Wireless LANs provide
Flexibility
Portability
Mobility
Ease of Installation
Wireless LAN Applications
 Medical Professionals
 Education
 Temporary Situations
 Airlines
 Security Staff
 Emergency Centers
 IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN
Standard
Inresponse to lacking standards, IEEE
developed the first internationally
recognized wireless LAN standard – IEEE
802.11
IEEE published 802.11 in 1997, after seven
years of work
Scope of IEEE 802.11 is limited to Physical
and Data Link Layers.
Benefits of 802.11 Standard
 Appliance Interoperability
 Fast Product Development
 Stable Future Migration
 Price Reductions
The 802.11 standard takes into account the
following significant differences between
wireless and wired LANs:
Power Management
Security
Bandwidth
 WLAN Topology
Ad-Hoc Network

The BSS without an AP is a stand-alone network and cannot send data to other BSSs.
they can locate one another and agree to be part of a BSS.
 WLAN Topology
Infrastructure

EX: cellular network if we consider each BSS to be a cell and

each AP to be a base station.
Basic service sets (BSSs)
 StationTypes
IEEE 802.11 defines three types of stations
based on their mobility in a wireless LAN:
◦ no-transition
A station is either stationary (not moving) or moving only inside a BSS

◦ BSS-transition
station can move from one BSS to another, but the movement is confined
inside one ESS.

◦ and ESS-transition mobility.

A station can move from one ESS to another
collision avoidanceCSMAICA
network allocation vector (NAV) used to
avoid collision.
◦ RTS frame includes the duration of time that it needs to occupy
the channel.
◦ stations affected by this transmission create a timer called (NAV)
◦ the network allocation vector (NAV) shows the time must pass
before these stations allowed to check the channel for idleness.
there is no mechanism for collision detection, if the
sender has not received a CTS frame from the receiver,
assumes there has been a collision ,the sender tries
again.
 BLUETOOTH
Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology
designed to connect devices of different functions
such as telephones, notebooks, computers,
cameras, printers, coffee makers, and so on. A
Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network, which
means that the network is formed spontaneously.

Bluetooth defines two types of networks:

piconet and scatternet.
Piconet
A Bluetooth network is called a piconet, or a small net.
It can have up to eight stations, one of which is called the master; the rest
are called slaves.
Maximum of seven slaves. Only one master.
Slaves synchronize their clocks and hopping sequence with the master.
But an additional eight slaves can stay in parked state, which means they
can be synchronized with the master but cannot take part in
communication until it is moved from the parked state.
 Scatternet

Piconets can be combined to form what is called a

scatternet.
A slave station in one piconet can become the
master in
• another piconet.
Bluetooth devices has a built-in short-range radio
transmitter.
Bluetooth layers
Radio Layer: Roughly equivalent to physical layer of the Internet model.
Physical links can be synchronous or asynchronous.
◦ Uses Frequency-hopping spread spectrum [Changing frequency of usage].
Changes it modulation frequency 1600 times per second.
◦ Uses frequency shift keying (FSK )with Gaussian bandwidth filtering to
transform bits to a signal.
Baseband layer: Roughly equivalent to MAC sublayer in LANs. Access is
using Time Division (Time slots).
◦ Length of time slot = dwell time = 625 microsec. So, during one frequency,a
sender sends a frame to a slave, or a slave sends a frame to the master.
Time division duplexing TDMA (TDD-TDMA) is a kind of half-duplex
communication in which the slave and receiver send and receive data, but
not at the same time (half-duplex). However, the communication for each
direction uses different hops, like walkie-talkies.
Bluetooth layers
 Physical Links
Synchronous connection-oriented (SCO)
◦ Latency is important than integrity.
◦ Transmission using slots.
◦ No retransmission.
Asynchronous connectionless link (ACL)
◦ Integrity is important than latency.
◦ Does like multiple-slave communication.
◦ Retransmission is done.
L2CAP (Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol)
◦ Equivalent to LLC sublayer in LANs.
◦ Used for data exchange on ACL Link. SCO channels do not use L2CAP.
◦ Frame format has 16-bit length [Size of data coming from upper layer in bytes],
channel ID, data and control.
◦ Can do Multiplexing, segmentation and Reassembly, QoS [with no QoS, best-
effort delivery is provided] and Group mangement [Can do like multicast group,
using some kind of logical addresses].
THANK YOU
 UNIT III
NETWORK LAYER
Network layer – Switching concepts –
Circuit switching – Packet switching – IP
Addressing –IPV4, IPV6 – Routing
Protocols – Distance Vector – Link State.
 UNIT – III

NETWORK LAYER
 OVERVIEW
• Network Layer
• Switching Concepts
• Circuit Switching
• Packet Switching
• Message Switching
• IP Addressing
• IPV4
• IPV6
• Routing Protocols
• Distance Vector Routing
• Link State Routing
 Network Layer
• The Network layer is responsible for
the source-to-destination delivery of a
packet possible across multiple
networks.
• It converts Frames into packets.
• Source-to-Destination delivery of a packet
• Logical addressing
• Routing
• Internetworking
Network layer Duties

3
 Switching Concepts
Switches are hardware or software devices used
for temporary connection b/w 2 or more devices
linked to the switch in network but not to each
another
Switches are needed to connect multiple devices
for making one-one communication

TYPES:
•
•
•
 Circuit switching
It creates direct physical connection
b/w two devices such as phone or
computers.
Any computer can be connected to any
other using Levers.
N-by-N folded switches can connect n
lines in full duplex mode.
2 types:
◦
◦
 Space Division Switch
Path in the circuit are separatedfrom each other
It is used both in analog and digital
communication
2 Types:
◦ Crossbar switch
◦ Multistage switch
• Crossbar Switch:
It connects n inputs to m outputs using cross points
• Limitation:
More cross points needed(1000 I/P - 1000 O/P requires
1000000 crosspoints)
Crossbar Switch:
 Multistage switch
Devices are linked to switches ,that are in turn
linked to another switches(Hierarchy of
switches)
 Blocking:
The reduction in a number of cross
points causes a phenomena called
Blocking.
During heavy traffic one input cannot be
connected to output because no path
available
 Time Division Switches
It uses time division multiplexing

2 methods:
Time slot interchange
TDM bus
Time slot interchange:
It changes the ordering of the slot based on the
desired connection
It uses RAM to store time slot
Ex:
1->3 2->4 3->1 4->2
A B C D -> C D A B
TSI
 TDM Bus- Time Div ision Multiplexing
Here each input and output lines are connected
to high speed bus
Each bus is closed during one of the four time slots
 Limitations of Circuit Switching
• It is specially designed for voice
communication(telephone). Not suitable
for data communication.
• Once a circuit is established, it remains for
duration of the session. It creates
dialed(temporary)and leased(Permanent).
• Less data rate because of point to point
connection.
 Packet switching
• Packet switching is better for data
transmission.
• Here data are transmitted through unit of
variable length blocks called packets.
• Longer transmission are divided into
multiple packets.
• Packet length is decided by network.
 DatagramApproach
• In this approach a message is divided into
multiple packets.
• All packets choose various routes and
reaches the destination.
• Ordering of packets in destination is done by
transport layer.
DatagramApproach
 Virtual Circuit approach
It uses single route to send all packets of the
message
Two formats:
◦ Switched virtual circuit
◦ Permanent virtual circuit
SVC
• Connection is temporary
• Dial-up lines
DuringTransmission.
A connection is established-all packets are sent –
proper ACK- Connection is terminated
 PVC
• Connection is permanent.
• Circuit is dedicated for two users, No one else can
use the line when communication takes place.
• It always gets the same route.
• Leased lines.
During Transmission.
No connection establishment or termination
PVC
 Circuit switchedVs Virtual Circuit
Path Vs Route:
Circuit switched->Path
Virtual Circuit->route
 Message Switching
• It uses amechanism called store and forward
• Here a message is received and stored until a
appropriate route is free, then sends along.
• Message switching- uses secondary
storage(Disk)
• Packet switching – uses primary
storage(RAM)
 Routers
• The routers decide which route is best among
many routes in a particular transmission.
• Routers are like stations on the network
Routing concepts:
Least cost routing:
Cheaper
Shortest path(using small number of relays or hops.
Hop-count ->Number of relays
 Non - Adaptive Routing
In some routing protocols , once a pathway
to a destination is selected ,the router sends
all packets in that way.
Adaptive Routing:
The router may select new route for each
packet.
Packet Life Time (or)Time to Live:
The problem created by looping or
bouncing is avoided by destroying the packet
without looping, New packet is
retransmitted
• To route the packet with optimal cost many
routing algorithms are used to Calculating the
shortest path between 2 routers
1. Distance Vector Routing
2. Link State Routing
 Distance vector Routing
Def:
• Each router periodically shares its knowledge about
the entire network with its neighbor.
• It is represented by graph.

Key Works:
• Each router shares its knowledge about the entire
network to neighbors.
• Routing only to the directly linked routers.
• Information sharing at regular interval(each 30
seconds).
The Concept of Distance Vector Routing
2
8
1

Distance Vector Routing Table

12/28/2020 Unit-3 : Network Layer

Routing Table Distribution
 Link State Routing
Def:
Each router shares its knowledge of it neighborhood with
all routers in the internetwork.
It is represented by directed graph with weight.
Key work:
Each router shares its knowledge about the
neighborhood
Each router sends its knowledge to all router.
Flooding -> Each router share info to neighbor, The
neighbor to its own neighbor and so on.,
Information sharing when there is a change.
Concept of Link State Routing
Cost in Link State Routing
2
8
6
Link State Packet

12/28/2020 Unit-3 : Network Layer

2
8
7
Link State Database

12/28/2020 Unit-3 : Network Layer

 TCP/IP
• It was developed before OSI
• This project was funded by ARPA of U.S called
ARPANET which is turned into TCP/IP
• In internet it acts like a single network
connection many of any size and type.
• TCP and UDP creates a data unit called
Segment or datagram.
 What is an IP address?
An Internet Protocol address is a numerical
label assigned to each device connected to a
computer network that uses the Internet
Protocol for communication.
An IP address serves two principal functions:
host or network interface identification
location addressing.
 IP (Internet Proocol)
Network layer of TCP/IP supports IP in turn four
other supporting protocol
◦ ICMP
◦ IGMP
◦ ARP
◦ RARP
It is a transmission mechanism used by TCP/IP
protocols
IP datagram
 C ont.,

IP Is a unreliable and connection less

datagram protocol.
No error checking or tracking.
Data transmitted to destination but no
guarantees.
IP must be paired with TCP.
 IP Addressing
In addition to physical address (NIC) ,to identify
each device in the network it requires IP address.
Address that identify host of its network.
An IP address is a 32-bit address.
The IP addresses are unique and
universal.
It Represented in a Dotted-decimal
Notation.
Example 1
Change the following IP addresses from binary notation to dotted-
decimal notation.
a. 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11111001 10011011 11111011 00001111

Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent decimal
number and add dots for separation:
a. 129.11.11.239
b. 249.155.251.15
Example 2
Change the following IP addresses from dotted-decimal notation to
binary notation.
a. 111.56.45.78
b. 75.45.34.78

Solution
We replace each decimal number with its binary equivalent
(see Appendix B):

a. 01101111 00111000 00101101 01001110

b. 01001011 00101101 00100010 01001110
Figure 19.10 Finding the class in binary notation
Finding the class in decimal notation (changes from 0 to 255)
 Private and Public IPAddress
Class Starting IPAddress Ending IPAddress # of Hosts

A 10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255 16,777,216

B 172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255 1,048,576

C 192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255 65,536

 Types of IP address
Static address
Dynamic address

Static IP address
◦ manually input by network administrator.
◦ manageable for small networks.
◦ requires careful checks to avoid
duplication.
 Types of IP address
Dynamic IP address
examples - BOOTP, DHCP
◦ Assigned by server when host boots
◦ Derived automatically from a range of
addresses
◦ Duration of ‘lease’ negotiated, then address
released back to server
 Subnetting
Dividing the network into several smaller
groups (subnets) with each group having its
own subnet IP address.
Site looks to rest of internet like single
network and routers outside the organization
route the packet based on the main Network
address.
Local routers route within subnetted
network using subnet address.
 Subnetting
Host portion of address partitioned into subnet
number (most significant part) and host number
(least significant part)
In this case, IP address will have 3 levels
(Main network, subnet, host)
Subnet mask is a 32-bit consists of zeros and ones
that indicates which bits of the IP address are
subnet number and which are host number
Subnet mask when AND ed with the IP address
it gives the subnetwork address
 Masking.
Masking is a process that extracts the address
of the physical network from an IP address.
Boundary level masking: Here the mask
numbers are either 255 or 0, finding the
subnetwork address is very easy.
Non-boundary level masking.
If mask numbers are not just 255 or 0,
finding the subnetwork address involves
using the bitwise A N D operators
 Supernetting:
• Supernetting combines several networks into
one lager one (Because of Address reduction)
 IP Network Addressing
INTERNET  world’s largest public data
network, doubling in size every nine months
IPv4, defines a 32-bit address - 232
(4,294,967,296) IPv4 addresses available
The first problem is concerned with the
eventual depletion of the IP address space.
Traditional model of classful addressing does not
allow the address space to be used to its
maximum potential.
 ClassfulAddressing
When IP was first standardized in Sep 1981,
each system attached to the IP based Internet
had to be assigned a unique 32-bit address
The 32-bit IP addressing scheme involves a
two level addressing hierarchy

Network Number/Prefix Host Number

 Internet Protocol (IP)
What is Internet Protocol?
◦ Internet Protocol is a set of technical rules
that defines how computers communicate
over a network.

◦ Currently, There are two versions of IP

IP version 4 (IPv4)
IP version 6 (IPv6).
 Internet Protocol (IP)
What is IPv4?
◦ IPv4 was the first version of Internet
Protocol to be widely used, and accounts
for most of today’s Internet traffic.

◦ There are just over 4 billion IPv4 addresses.

While that is a lot of IP addresses, it is not
enough to last forever.
 Internet Protocol (IP)
What is IPv6?
◦ IPv6 is a newer numbering system that
provides a much larger address pool than
IPv4. It was deployed in 1999 and should
meet the world’s IP addressing needs well
into the future.
 Internet Protocol (IP)
What is the major difference?
◦ The major difference between IPv4 and
IPv6 is the number of IP addresses.

◦ There are 4,294,967,296 IPv4 addresses.

◦ while, there are
340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,
768,211,456 IPv6 addresses.
 128-bit IPv6 Address
3FFE:085B:1F1F:0000:0000:0000:00A9:1234

8 groups of 16-bit hexadecimal numbers separated by “:”

Leading zeros can be
removed

3FFE:85B:1F1F::A9:1234

:: = all zeros in one or more group of 16-bit hexadecimal numbers

 IPv4 vs. IPv6
IPv6

IPv4 addresses are 32 IPv6 addresses are 128

bit length. bit length.

IPv4 addresses are binary IPv6 addresses are binary

numbersrepresented in numbers represented in
decimals. hexadecimals.

IPSec support is
Inbuilt IPSec support.
only optional.
Fragmentation is done by
Fragmentation is done only
sender and forwarding
by sender.
routers.
 Packet flow identification is
available within the IPv6 header
No packet flow identification.
using the Flow Label field.

Checksum field is No checksum field in

available in IPv4 IPv6 header.
header

Options fields are No option fields, but

available in IPv4 IPv6 Extension headers
header. are available.

Address Resolution Protocol

Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP) is replaced with a
(ARP) is available to map IPv4
function of Neighbor Discovery
addresses to MAC addresses.
Protocol (NDP).
Internet Group
IGMP is replaced with
Management Protocol
Multicast Listener
(IGMP) is used to manage
Discovery (MLD) messages.
multicast group
membership.
Broadcast messages are not
available. Instead a link- local
scope "All nodes" multicast
Broadcast messages are IPv6 address(FF02::1) is used
available. for broadcast similar
functionality.

Manual configuration Auto-configuration of

(Static) of IPv4 addresses or addresses is available.
DHCP (Dynamic Host
 IPv4 companion protocols (1)
ARP: Address Resolution Protocol
◦ Mapping from IP address to MAC address
ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol
◦ Error reporting & Query
IGMP: Internet Group Management Protocol
◦ Multicast member join/leave
Unicast Routing Protocols (Intra-AS)
◦ Maintaining Unicast Routing Table
◦ E.g. RIP, OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
 IPv4 companion protocols (2)
Multicast Routing Protocols
◦ Maintaining Multicast Routing Table
◦ E.g. DVMRP, MOSPF, CBT, PIM
Exterior Routing Protocols (Inter-AS)
◦ E.g. BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)
Quality-of-Service Frameworks
◦ Integrated Service (ISA, IntServ)
◦ Differentiated Service (DiffServ)
 Why IPv6?
Deficiency of IPv4
Address space exhaustion
New types of service  Integration
◦ Multicast
◦ Quality of Service
◦ Security
◦ Mobility (MIPv6)
Header and format limitations
 Advantages of IPv6 over IPv4
Larger address space
Better header format
New options
Allowance for extension
Support for resource allocation
Support for more security
Support for mobility
THANK YOU
 UNIT IV
TRANSPORT LAYER
Transport layer – service – Connection
establishment – Flow control –
Transmission control protocol –
Congestion control and avoidance – User
datagram protocol - Transport for Real
Time Applications (RTP).
 UNIT – IV

TRANSPORT LAYER
 OVERVIEW
• Transport Layer

• Service

• Connection Establishment

• Flow Control
• Congestion Control and Avoidance
• Transmission Control Protocol
• User Datagram Protocol
• Transport for Real Time Applications (RTP).
• The Transport layer is responsible for process-
to-process or end-end delivery of the entire
message.
• The transport layer ensures that the whole
message arrives intact and overseeing both
 Service point addressing(Process-Process
delivery)
 Segmentation and reassembly
 Connection control
 Flow control(QoS) – MUX & Demux
 Error control – error checking and
recovery
 Congestion control
– Transport Layer Provides :
• Efficient
• Reliable and
• Cost-effective services
– Another TWO Kinds of Services are :
• Connection oriented - TCP
• Connectionless - UDP
 Simple Service: Primitives
• Simple primitives:
– Connect
– Send
– Receive
– Disconnect
• How to handle incoming connection request in
server process?
Wait for connection request from client!
– listen
Berkeley service : Primitives
 Connection Establishment
• Once a connection is established, both client and
server may exachnge data using several system
calls.
• A connection is typically used for client-server
interaction.
• A server advertizes a particular server at a well-
known address and clients establish connections to
that socket to avail of the offered service.
• Thus the connection estblishment procedure is
asymmetric.
–Problems to solve
• Selection of the initial sequence
number for a new connection.
• Wrap around of sequence numbers
for an active connection.
• It Handle host crashes.
 Releasing a connection
– Asymmetric
• Connection broken when one party hangs up
• Abrupt!  may result in data loss
– Symmetric
• Both parties should agree to release connection
• How to reach agreement? Two-army problem
• Solution: three-way-handshake
– Pragmatic approach
• Connection = 2 unidirectional connections
• Sender can close unidirectional connection
 Flow Control
It is a set of procedures to tell the sender how much
data it can transmit before it must wait for an
acknowledgement from the receiver.
Two categories of flow control:
◦ Stop-and-wait
Send one frame at a time.
◦ Sliding window
Send several frames at a time.
 Stop-and-wait
Sender sends one frame and waits for an
acknowledgement before sending the next frame.
 Stop-and-wait
Advantages:
◦ Simplicity.
◦ Each frame is checked and acknowledged
before the next frame is sent.
Disadvantages:
◦ Slow.
Can add significantly to the total transmission time
if the distance between devices is long.
◦ Inefficiency
Each frame is alone on the line.
 SlidingWindow
Sender can send several frames before
needing an acknowledgement.
Advantages:
◦ The link can carry several frames at once.
◦ Its capacity can be used efficiently.
 Congestion Control and Avoidance
• Congestion Control is concerned with
efficiently using a network at high load.
• Several techniques can be employed. These
include:
• – Warning bit
– Choke packets
Detection
– Load shedding
– Random Early Discard
– Traffic shaping Avoidance
 Principles of Congestion Control
Congestion:
 informally: “too many sources sending too much
data too fast for network to handle”
 different from flow control!
= end-to-end issue!

– lost packets (buffer overflow at routers)

– long delays (queue-ing in router buffers)
 Causes of Congestion
 Two senders, Two receivers
 One router, Infinite buffers
 No retransmission
 Approaches towards congestion control
Two broad approaches towards congestion control:
End-to-End congestion Network-assisted
control: congestion control:
 no explicit feedback from
 routers provide feedback to
network end systems
 congestion inferred from
– single bit indicating
end-system observed loss, congestion (SNA, ATM)
delay
– explicit rate sender should
 approach taken by TCP
send it.
 Congestion Detection and Control
The following 3 Methods are used to Detect &
Control the Congestions :
1. Warning bit
2. Choke packets
3. Load shedding
 Warning Bit
• A special bit in the packet header is set by
the router to warn the source when
congestion is detected.
• The bit is copied and piggy-backed on the
ACK and sent to the sender.
• The sender monitors the number of ACK
packets it receives with the warning bit set
and adjusts its transmission rate accordingly.
6
3
4
7

Choke Packets
• A more direct way of telling the source to
slow down.
• A choke packet is a control packet
generated at a congested node and
transmitted to restrict traffic flow.
• The source, on receiving the choke packet
must reduce its transmission rate by a certain
percentage.
• An example of a choke packet is the ICMP
Source Quench Packet.
3
4
8
Load Shedding
• When buffers become full, routers simply discard
packets.
• Which packet is chosen to be the victim depends
on the application and on the error strategy usedin
the data link layer.
• For a file transfer, for, e.g. cannot discard older
packets since this will cause a gap in thereceived
data.
• For real-time voice or video it is probably better to
throw away old data and keep new packets.
• Get the application to mark packets with discard
priority.
 Congestion Avoidance
The following 2 Methods are used to Avoid the
Congestions :
1. Random Early Discard
2. Traffic Shaping
3
5
0

Random Early Discard (RED)

• This is a proactive approach in which the
router discards one or more packets before the
buffer becomes completely full.
• Each time a packet arrives, the RED
algorithm computes the average queue
length, avg.
• If avg is lower than some lower threshold,
congestion is assumed to be minimal or non-
existent and the packet is queued.
3
5
1

RED, cont.
• If avg is greater than some upper threshold,
congestion is assumed to be serious and the
packet is discarded.
• If avg is between the two thresholds, this
might indicate the onset of congestion. The
probability of congestion is then calculated.
 Traffic Shaping
• Another method of congestion Avoidance is to
“shape” the traffic before it enters the
network.
• Traffic shaping controls the rate at which
packets are sent (not just how many). Used in
ATM and Integrated Services networks.
• At connection set-up time, the sender and
carrier negotiate a traffic pattern (shape).
• Two traffic shaping algorithms are:
– Leaky Bucket
– Token Bucket
 The Leaky Bucket Algorithm
• The Leaky Bucket Algorithm used to control
rate in a network. It is implemented as a single-
server queue with constant service time. If the
bucket (buffer) overflows then packets are
discarded.
 The Leaky Bucket Algorithm

(a)A leaky bucket with water. (b) a leaky bucket with packets.
 Token Bucket Algorithm
• In contrast to the LB, the Token Bucket
Algorithm, allows the output rate to vary,
depending on the size of the burst.
• In the TB algorithm, the bucket holds tokens. To transmit
a packet, the host must capture and destroy one token.
• Tokens are generated by a clock at the rate of one token
every sec.
• Idle hosts can capture and save up tokens (up to the max.
size of the bucket) in order to sendlarger bursts later.
The Token Bucket
5-34 Algorithm

(a) Before. (b) After.

 Transmission Control Protocol
 TCP is reliable protocol. That is, the
receiver always sends either positive or
negative acknowledgement about the data
packet to the sender
 It ensures the data packet is reached the
destination or it needs to resend it.
 TCP provides end-to-end communication.
 TCP provides full duplex server

ByteStream
ByteStream

T C P T C P

IP Internetwork
Well-known ports used by TCP
Figure : TCP segment format
 TCP Header
 The length of TCP header is minimum 20
bytes long and maximum 60 bytes.
 Source Port (16-bits) - It identifies
source port of the application process on the
sending device.
 Destination Port (16-bits) - It identifies
destination port of the application process on
the receiving device.
 Sequence Number (32-bits) -
Sequence number of data bytes of a
segment in a session.
 Acknowledgement Number (32-
bits) - When ACK flag is set, this number
contains the next sequence number of the data
byte expected and works as acknowledgement
of the previous data received.
 Data Offset (4-bits) - This field implies
both, the size of TCP header (32-bit words)
and the offset of data in current packet in the
whole TCP segment.
 Reserved (3-bits) - Reserved for future use
and all are set zero by default.
 Flags (1-bit each)
 NS - Nonce Sum bit is used by Explicit
Congestion Notification signaling process.
 CWR - When a host receives packet with ECE
bit set, it sets Congestion Windows Reduced to
acknowledge that ECE received.
 ECE - If SYN bit is clear to 0, then ECE means that
the IP packet has its CE (congestion experience) bit
set.
 URG - It indicates that Urgent Pointer
field has significant data and should be
processed.
 ACK - It indicates that Acknowledgement
field has significance. If ACK is cleared to 0, it
indicates that packet does not contain any
acknowledgement.
 PSH - When set, it is a request to the
receiving station to PUSH data (as soon as it
comes) to the receiving application without
buffering it.
 RST - Reset flag has the following
features:
 It is used to refuse an incoming connection.
 It is used to reject a segment.
 It is used to restart a connection.
 SYN - This flag is used to set up a
connection between hosts.
 FIN - This flag is used to release a connection
and no more data is exchanged thereafter.
Because packets with SYN and FIN flags have
sequence numbers, they are processed in
correct order.
 Windows Size - This field is used for flow
control between two stations and indicates
the amount of buffer (in bytes) the receiver
has allocated for a segment,
i.e. how much data is the receiver
expecting.
 Checksum - This field contains the
checksum of Header, Data and Pseudo
Headers.
 Urgent Pointer - It points to the urgent
data byte if URG flag is set to 1.
 Options - It facilitates additional options
which are not covered by the regular
header.
 Option field is always described in 32-bit
words. If this field contains data less than
32-bit, padding is used to cover the
remaining bits to reach 32-bit boundary.
 Connection Management in TCP

 Opening a TCP Connection

 Closing a TCP Connection
 Special Scenarios
 State Diagram
 TCP Connection Establishment
 TCP uses a three-way handshake to open a connection:

(1)ACTIVE OPEN: Client sends a segment with

 SYN bit set *

 port number of client

 initial sequence number (ISN) of client

(2)PASSIVE OPEN: Server responds with a segment with

 SYN bit set *

 initial sequence number of server

 ACK for ISN of client

(3)Client acknowledges by sending a segment with:

 ACK ISN of server(* counts as one byte)
Figure : Connection establishment using three-way handshaking
Figure : Connection termination using three-way handshaking
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is called a
connectionless, unreliable transport protocol. It does
not add anything to the services of IP except to
provide process-to-process communication instead
of host-to- host communication.

•provide unreliable service

Table : Well-known ports used with UDP
Figure : User Datagram Format
UDP Format
 Source and destination port : 16, 16
identify applications at ends of the
connection
 length: 16 - length of datagram including
header and data
 checksum :16 -one’s complement of
header and data including pseudo data
UDP for Application

 TFTP
 DNS
 RPC, NFS
 SNMP
Figure :Pseudo header for checksum calculation
Figure : Queues in UDP
 TCP UDP

Transmission Control Protocol User Datagram Protocol

Connection Oriented Connection Less

Slow Fast
Highly Reliable Unreliable
20 Bytes 8 Bytes

It takes acknowledgement of data and It neither takes acknowledgement, nor it

has the ability to retransmit if the user retransmits the lost data.
requests.

TCP is heavy-weight. UDP is lightweight.

Stream-based Message-based

Delivery of all data is managed Not performed

Flow control using sliding window None

protocol

TCP doesn’t supports Broadcasting. UDP supports Broadcasting.

Small to moderate amounts of data Small to enormous amounts of the

data

Applications where reliable Application where data delivery

transmission of data matters. speed matters.

FTP, Telnet, SMTP, IMAP. DNS, BOOTP, DHCP, TFTP.

• A protocol is designed to handle real-time
traffic (like audio and video) of the Internet, is
known as Real Time Transport Protocol
(RTP).
• RTP must be used with UDP.
• It does not have any delivery mechanism like
multicasting or port numbers.
• RTP supports different formats of files like
MPEG and MJPEG.
• It is very sensitive to packet delays and less
sensitive to packet loss.
• RTP is first time published in 1996 and
known as RFC 1889. And next it published
in 2003 with name of RFC 3550.
1. RTP mainly helps in media mixing,
sequencing and time-stamping.
2. Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
3. Video Teleconferencing over Internet.
4. Internet Audio and video streaming.
• Version : This 2-bit field defines version number. The current version is
2.
• P –The length of this field is 1-bit. If value is 1, then it denotes
presence of padding at end of packet and if value is 0, then there is no
padding.
• X –The length of this field is also 1-bit. If value of this field is set to 1,
then its indicates an extra extension header between data and basic
header and if value is 0 then, there is no extra extension.
• Contributor count –This 4-bit field indicates number of contributors.
Here maximum possible number of contributor is 15 as a 4-bit field
can allows number form 0 to 15.
• M –The length of this field is 1-bit and it is used as end marker by
application to indicate end of its data.
• Payload types –This field is of length 7-bit to indicate type of payload.
We list applications of some common types of payload.
• Sequence Number –The length of this field is 16
bits. It is used to give serial numbers to RTP
packets.
• Time Stamp –The length of this field is 32-bit. It is
used to find relationship between times of
different RTP packets.
• Synchronization Source Identifier –This is a 32-bit
field used to identify and define the source. The
value for this source identifier is a random number
that is chosen by source itself.
• Contributor Identifier –This is also a 32-bit field
used for source identification where there is more
than one source present in session.
THANK YOU
 UNIT V APPLICATIONS
Applications - DNS – E-Mail Protocols –
WWW – SNMP – SMTP - Security –
Threats and Services- Cryptography -DES-
RSA- Web security -SSL .
 UNIT – V

APPLICATIONS
• Applications
OVERVIEW
• DNS

• E-Mail Protocol

• WWW

• SNMP

• SMTP

• Security

• Threats and Services

• Cryptography

• DES

• RSA

• Web security

• SSL
• An application layer is an abstraction layer that
specifies the shared communications protocols
and interface methods used by hosts in a
communications network.
• The application layer abstraction is used in both
of the standard models of computer networking.
• The Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) and the OSI
model.
• Although both models use the same term for their
respective highest-level layer.
 Services of Application Layers
• File Transfer
• Addressing
• Mail Services
• Directory Services
• Authentication
 DNS
• (Domain Name System) The Internet's
system for converting alphabetic names
into numeric IP addresses.
• For example, when a Web address (URL) is
typed into a browser, DNS servers return the
IP address of the Web server associated
with that name.
• In this example, the DNS converts the URL
www.company.com into the IP address
204.0.8.51.
A Hierarchy of Servers
• The DNS system is a hierarchy of duplicated
database servers worldwide that begin with the
"root servers" for the top-level domains (.com,
.net, .org, .gov, .edu, .mil, etc.). The root
servers point to the "authoritative" servers
located in ISPs,

www.yahoo.com
www --------> Host Name
Yahoo--------> Server Name
com ----------> Domain Name
 Structure of DNS
• It Consists of Four Elements

1. DNS Name Space

2. DNS Database
3. Name Servers
4. DNS Resolvers
 1. DNS Name Space
• The Domain Name Space consists of a tree data
structure.
• Each node or leaf in the tree has a label and zero or
more resource records (RR), which hold
information associated with the domain name.
• The domain name itself consists of the label, parent
node on the right.
• The tree sub-divides into zones beginning at the
A DNS zone may consist of only one
domain, or may consist of many domains and sub-
domains, depending on the administrative choices
of the zone manager.
2. DNS Database
• DNS does not only deal with IP addresses of hosts,
but also exchanges information on Name Servers.
• The Key features of the Database are as Follows :
1) Variable-Depth Hierarchy for Names.
2) Distributed Database.
3) Distribution Controlled by Database.
3. Name Servers
• The Domain Name System is maintained by a
distributed database system, which uses the
client–server model.
• The nodes of this database are the name servers.
• Each domain has at least one authoritative DNS
server that publishes information about that
domain and the name servers of any domains
subordinate to it.
• The top of the hierarchy is served by the root
name servers.
4. DNS Resolvers
• The client side of the DNS is called a DNS resolver.
• A resolver is responsible for initiating and
sequencing the queries that ultimately lead to a
full resolution.
• DNS resolvers are classified by a variety of query
methods, such as recursive, non-recursive, and
iterative.
• The DNS protocol uses two types of DNS
messages, queries and replies; both have the
same format.
• Each message consists of a header and four
sections: question, answer, authority, and an
additional space.
• A header field (flags) controls the content of these
four sections.
• The header section consists of the following
fields: Identification, Flags, Number of questions,
Number of answers, Number of authority
resource records (RRs), and Number of
additional RRs. Each field is 16 bits long.
• Primary website.
• Marketing campaign websites.
• Email servers.
• Customer support websites.
• Online resource libraries.
• Inside sales web portals.
• Multi-tier web applications.
• P2P resources.
• Electronic Mail or E-Mail is a method of sending
and receiving messages (Mail) electronically over
a Computer Network.
• E-Mail is a system allows a person or a group to
electronically communicate to others through
Internet.
• It is method of exchanging message between
people using electronic devices.
• Exchanging message as Text files and non-text
files (images, graphics Image, files so on.,)
Components of Email System
Mail Server
Receive, Store and Deliver the mail
DNS
Find and match the IP Address of the Mail
Server
 Mailbox
It is a Folder contains Emails and their
information.
 E-Mail Protocol

The E-Mail communication is done via

three protocols in general. They are,

1.SMTP ( Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

2.POP ( Post Office Protocol)
3.IMAP ( Internet Mail Access Protocol)
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
 The SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
 Email is sent using this protocol.
 Is an internet standard communication protocol for
electronic mail transmission.
 Mail servers and other message transfer agents use
SMTP to send and receive mail messages.
 ADVANTAGES:
 SMTP provides the simplest form of communicating
through email message between various computers
in a particular network.
 Since SMTP is developed from a simple platform ,
email messages may be sent easily and quickly.
 SMTP also offers reliability in terms of outgoing
email messages.
DISADVANTAGES:
 The main drawback of sending through an SMTP
server is that it is insecure, it can be easily hacked.
 Another disadvantage is the server limitation.
 POP (Post Office Protocol):
 This protocol is also used for incoming emails.
The main difference with the both protocols is that POP
downloads the entire email into the local computer and
deletes the data on the server once it is downloaded.
This is helpful in a server with less free memory.
Current version of POP is POP3 .
 ADVANTAGES:
 Emails are downloaded to the user`s computer.
 opening attachments is quick and easy as they are already
downloaded.
 Less server storage space required all emails are stored on local
machine.
 Storage capacity of emails limited by the size of your hard disk.
 very popular, easy to configure and use.

DISADVANTAGES:
 Emails cannot be accessed from other machines(unless configured
to do so).
 Exporting the local mail folder to another email client or physical
machine can be difficult.
 Email folders can become corrupted, potentially losing the entire
mailbox at once.
 IMAP(Internet Mail Access Protocol)
 This protocol is used while receiving an email.
 When one uses IMAP, the emails will be present in the
server and not get downloaded to the user`s mail box and
deleted from the server.
 This helps to have less memory used in the local
computer and server memory is increased.
 ADVANTAGES:
 Mail stored on remote server, i.e. accessible from
multiple different location.
 Internet connection needed to access mail.
 Mail is automatically backed up if server is managed
properly.

 DISADVANTAGES:
 The main disadvantage of the IMAP protocols is that
it is mandatory to have an internet connection on
all the time to read/reply and search the message.
 WWW
• The World Wide Web is the universe of network-
accessible information.
• In simple terms, The World Wide Web is a way of
exchanging information between computers on the
Internet.
• The World Wide Web is based on several different
Technologies : Web browsers, Hypertext Markup
Language (HTML) and Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP).
 Features of WWW
• HyperText Information System
• Cross-Platform
• Distributed
• Open Standards and Open Source
• Uses Web Browsers to provide a single interface
for many services
• Dynamic, Interactive and Evolving.
• “Web 2.0”
 Components of WWW
• There are 5 Components of WWW:
1. Uniform Resource Locator (URL): serves as
system for resources on web.
2. HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP): specifies
communication of browser and server.
3. Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML): It Defines
structure, organisation and content of webpage.
4. Web Server : A web server is computer software
and underlying hardware that accepts requests via
HTTP, the network protocol created to distribute
web pages.
 Components of WWW
5. Web Browser : A web browser (commonly
referred to as a browser or internet browser).
• It is an application software for accessing the
World Wide Web.
• When a user requests a web page from a
particular website, the web browser retrieves the
necessary content from a web server and then
displays the page on the user's device.
WWW Architecture
 Working of WWW
• The World Wide Web is based on several different
technologies :
1. Web browser.
2. Hypertext Markup Language (HTML).
3. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
1. Web browser : It is used to access webpages.
Web browsers can be defined as programs which
display text, data, pictures, animation and video on
the Internet.
2. HTML : Hyperlinked resources on the World
Wide Web can be accessed using software
interface provided by Web browsers.
3. HTTP : It can be used for several tasks
including : searches, mailing, transferring files,
and much more. Some of the commonly used
browsers are Internet Explorer, Opera Mini,
Google Chrome.
• Online Forms
• Shopping Carts
• Word Processors
• Spreadsheets
• Video and Photo Editing
• File Conversion
• File Scanning
• E-mail programs such as Gmail, Yahoo and AOL.
• Popular Applications include Google Apps and
Microsoft 365.
 SNMP
• Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
is an application–layer protocol defined by the

• It is a part of Transmission Control

Protocol⁄Internet Protocol (TCP⁄IP) protocol
suite.
• SNMP is one of the widely accepted network
protocols to manage and monitor network
elements.
SNMP consists of
• GET: The GET operation is a request sent by the manager to
the managed device.
• GET NEXT: The significant difference is that the GET NEXT
operation retrieves the value of the next MIB tree.
• GET BULK: The GETBULK operation is used to retrieve
voluminous data from large MIB table.
• SET: This operation is used by the managers to modify or
assign the value of the Managed device.
• TRAPS: TRAPS are initiated by the Agents. It is a signal to the
SNMP Manager by the Agent on the occurrence of an event.
• INFORM: It includes confirmation from the SNMP manager
on receiving the message.
• RESPONSE: It is the command used to carry back the value(s)
or signal of actions directed by the SNMP Manager.
• SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol.
• SMTP is a set of communication guidelines
that allow software to transmit an
electronic mail over the internet is called
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
• It is a program used for sending messages to
other computer users based on e-mail
addresses.
• It provides a mail exchange between users on the
same or different computers, and it also
supports:
1. It can send a single message to one or more
recipients.
2. Sending message can include text, voice, video
or graphics.
3. It can also send the messages on networks
outside the internet.
4. The main purpose of SMTP is used to set up
communication rules between servers.
• It have the following Working Functionalities :
1. Composition of Mail
2. Submission of Mail
3. Delivery of Mail
4. Receipt and Processing of Mail
5. Access and Retrieval of Mail
 ADVANTAGES:
 SMTP provides the simplest form of communicating
through email message between various computers
in a particular network.
 Since SMTP is developed from a simple platform ,
email messages may be sent easily and quickly.
 SMTP also offers reliability in terms of outgoing
email messages.
DISADVANTAGES:
 The main drawback of sending through an SMTP
server is that it is insecure, it can be easily hacked.
 Another disadvantage is the server limitation.
• Network Security deals with all aspects related to
the protection of the sensitive information assets
existing on the network.
• It covers various mechanisms developed to
provide fundamental security services for data
communication.
• It describes the functioning of most common
security protocols employed at different
networking layers right from application to data
link layer.
 Goals of Network Security
• The primary goal of network security are
Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability. These
three pillars of Network Security are often
represented as CIA triangle.
1. Confidentiality − The function of confidentiality is
to protect precious business data from unauthorized
persons.
2. Integrity − It means maintaining and assuring the
accuracy and consistency of data.
The function of integrity is to make sure that the data
is reliable and is not changed by unauthorized
persons.
3. Availability − The function of availability in
Network Security is to make sure that the data,
network resources/services are continuously
available to the users, whenever they require it.
 Security Services
fundamental security services as the following −
1. Confidentiality − E-mail message should not be
read by anyone but the intended recipient.
2. Authentication − E-mail recipient can be sure of
the identity of the sender.
3. Integrity − Assurance to the recipient that the e-
mail message has not been altered since it was
transmitted by the sender.
4. Non-repudiation − E-mail recipient is able to
prove to a third party that the sender really did send
the message.
5. Proof of submission − E-mail sender gets the
confirmation that the message is handed to the mail
delivery system.
6. Proof of delivery − Sender gets a confirmation
that the recipient received the message.
 Threats and Services
A Computer System Threat is anything that
leads to loss or corruption of data or physical
damage to the hardware or infrastructure.
• Security Threats can be many like Software
attacks, theft of intellectual property, identity
theft, theft of equipment or information.
• Threat is any activity that can lead to data
loss/corruption through to delay of normal business
operations.
Types of Threats
• There are physical and non-physical threats.
• Physical Threats : cause damage to computer
systems hardware and infrastructure. Examples
include theft, vandalism through to natural
disasters.
• Non-physical Threats : Target the software
and data on the computer systems.
• A physical threat is a potential cause of an incident
that may result in loss or physical damage to the
computer systems.
• The following list classifies the physical threats
into three main categories
• Internal: The threats include fire, unstable power
supply, humidity in the rooms housing the
hardware, etc.
• External: These threats include Lightning, floods,
earthquakes, etc.
• Human: These threats include theft, vandalism of
the infrastructure and hardware, accidental or
intentional errors.
The following list is the common types of non-physical threats;
• Virus
• Trojans
• Worms
• Spyware
• Key loggers
• Adware
• Denial of Service Attacks
• Distributed Denial of Service Attacks
• Unauthorized access to computer systems resources such as
data
• Phishing
• Other Computer Security Risks
 Cryptography
• Cryptography is a method of protecting information
and communications through the use of codes.
• The information is intended can read and process
it.
• The prefix "crypt-" means "hidden" or "vault" --
and the suffix "-graphy" stands for "writing."
• Cryptography refers to secure information and
communication techniques derived from
mathematical concepts and a set of rule-based
calculations called algorithms.
 Cryptography Techniques
• Cryptography is closely related to the disciplines of

• It includes techniques such as microdots, merging

words with images, and other ways to hide
information in storage or transit.
• Cryptography is used to convert Plaintext into
Ciphertext is known as Encryption. then back
again

• Encryption : Known to Unknown

• Decryption : Unknown to Known
Cryptography Techniques
• Cryptography concerns with the following
Four objectives:
the information cannot be
understood by anyone for whom it was
unintended.
the information cannot be altered
in storage or transit between sender and
intended receiver without the alteration
being detected.
 the creator/sender of the
information cannot deny at a later stage his
or her intentions in the creation or
transmission of the information.
the sender and receiver can
confirm each other's identity and the
origin/destination of the information.
1. Single-key or Symmetric-key Cryptography.
2. Public-key or Asymmetric-key Cryptography.
1. Single-key or Symmetric-key Cryptography :
Symmetric cryptography is based on the use of just
is used to both Encrypt and Decrypt the
messages ( only Private Key or Secret Key )
2. Public-key or Asymmetric-key Cryptography :
Asymmetric cryptography, also known as public-key
cryptography, Here Two keys are used to Encrypt and
Decrypt the messages (Both Private and Public Key)
Single-key or Symmetric-key
Cryptography
Public-key or Asymmetric-key
Cryptography
• The Data Encryption Standard is a symmetric-key
algorithm for the encryption of digital data.
• The DES (Data Encryption Standard) algorithm is a
symmetric-key block cipher created in the early 1970s by
an IBM team and adopted by the National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST).
• DES is an implementation of a Feistel Cipher. It uses 16
round Feistel structure.
• Key length is 64-bit.
• Since DES is based on the Feistel Cipher.
1. Round function.
2. Key schedule.
3. Any additional processing − Initial and final
permutation.
• The algorithm process breaks down into the following steps:
1. The process begins with the 64-bit plain text block getting
handed over to an initial permutation (IP) function.
2. The initial permutation (IP) is then performed on the plain
text.
3. Next, the initial permutation (IP) creates two halves of the
permuted block, referred to as Left Plain Text (LPT) and Right
Plain Text (RPT).
4. Each LPT and RPT goes through 16 rounds of the encryption
process.
5. Finally, the LPT and RPT are rejoined, and a Final Permutation
(FP) is performed on the newly combined block.
6. The result of this process produces the desired 64-bit
ciphertext.
• The DES satisfies both the desired properties of
block cipher. These two properties make cipher
very strong.

• Avalanche effect − A small change in plaintext

results in the very great change in the ciphertext.

• Completeness − Each bit of ciphertext depends on

many bits of plaintext.
• You must choose a security provider to implement
your data encryption algorithm.
• There are many available providers to choose
from, but selecting one is the essential initial step
in implementation.
• Your selection may depend on the language you
are using,
• RSA (Rivest–Shamir–Adleman) is a public-key
cryptosystem that is widely used for secure data
transmission.
• In a public-key cryptosystem, the encryption key is
public and distinct from the decryption key, which
is kept secret (private).
• RSA algorithm is asymmetric cryptography
algorithm. Asymmetric actually means that it works
on two different keys i.e. Public Key and Private Key.
As the name describes that the Public Key is given
to everyone and Private key is kept private.
Example :
• A client (for example browser) sends its
public key to the server and requests for
some data.
• The server encrypts the data using client’s
public key and sends the encrypted data.
• Client receives this data and decrypts it.
The RSA algorithm holds the following features −

• RSA algorithm is a popular exponentiation in a

finite field over integers including prime numbers.
• The integers used by this method are sufficiently
large making it difficult to solve.
• There are two sets of keys in this algorithm:
private key and public key.
• The following steps to work on RSA algorithm :

The initial procedure begins with selection of two

prime numbers namely p and q, and then calculating
their product N,
N=p*q

Consider number e as a derived number which should

be greater than 1 and less than (p-1) and (q-1).

The specified pair of numbers n and e forms the RSA

public key and it is made public.
Private Key d is calculated from the numbers p, q
and e. The mathematical relationship between the
numbers is as follows :
Encryption Formula
Consider a sender who sends the plain text message
to someone whose public key is (n,e). To encrypt the
plain text message in the given scenario, use the
following syntax −

Decryption Formula
• The decryption process is very straightforward and
includes analytics for calculation in a systematic
approach. Considering receiver C has the private
key d, the result modulus will be calculated as −
• Web security is also known as
“Cybersecurity”. It basically means
protecting a website or web application by
detecting, preventing and responding to
cyber threats.
• web security is easy to install and it also
helps the business people to make their
website safe and secure.
• A web application firewall prevents
automated attacks that usually target small
or lesser-known websites.
• Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) is a security
protocol that provides privacy,
authentication, and integrity to Internet
communications.
• SSL eventually evolved into Transport Layer
Security (TLS).
• SSL, or Secure Sockets Layer, is an
encryption-based Internet security
protocol. It was first developed by Netscape
in 1995.
• SSL encrypts data that is transmitted across
the web.
• SSL initiates an authentication process called
a handshake between two communicating
devices to ensure that both devices are
really who they claim to be.
• SSL also digitally signs data in order to
provide data integrity.
• SSL supports the following information
security principles:
1. Encryption: protect data transmissions
(e.g. browser to server, server to server,
application to server, etc.)
2. Authentication: ensure the server you’re
connected to is actually the correct server.
3. Data integrity: ensure that the data that is
requested or submitted is what is actually
delivered.