Basic Aviation Sciences

Physics of the Atmosphere

BY
CPL. OPUNI FC/CPL. PANFORD
 OBJECTIVES
• explain the components of the atmosphere
• state and explain the different layers of the
atmosphere and their relationship
• state the purpose and values of the ICAO
standard atmosphere
 The Atmosphere
• The atmosphere is a mass of air which
surrounds the earth and extends from the
earth’s surface out to several hundreds of
kilometres with no definite outer boundary.
LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE
• Usually the atmosphere is considered to consist
of those 2 layers of air which lie closest to the
earth’s surface, namely the troposphere and the
stratosphere. Most conventional flying takes
place within these 2 layers
 The Troposphere
• The troposphere extends from the earth’s
surface to a height of 16,800 m above the
equator and up to 8,500 m above the poles.
• The height difference results from temperature
and gravity differences.
• The troposphere represents only 1 % of the
atmosphere but contains 75 % of its mass. All
weather changes occur within this layer.
• There is a constant drop in temperature of 6.5 °C
for every rise in height of 1km.
 THE TROPOPAUSE

• NOTE: NOT A LAYER

• This the zone where the troposphere ends and

the stratosphere begins
• There is no clear separation between the 2
layers as they tend to overlap.
 The Stratosphere
• The stratosphere extends to a height of 85 km
above the earth’s surface.
• Up to a height of approx. 27 km its temperature
remains constant at -56.5 °C. Then the
temperature starts to rise again
• The stratosphere is a rather ’quiet’ portion of the
atmosphere
• generally characterized by an absence of weather
and smooth flying conditions
 The Ionosphere
• The ionosphere extends to a height of approx.
400 km.
• The atmospheric gases within this layer are
ionized and possess an enormous electrical
conductivity
 The Exosphere
• The exosphere is the last layer and extends
into space. It consists of atomized hydrogen
and helium, whereas hydrogen is the
predominating element.
 Composition of the Atmosphere
• Air is a mixture of gases in relatively uniform
proportions throughout most of the atmosphere.
• A given volume of dry air at sea-level consists of 21 %
oxygen, 78 % nitrogen and 1 % other gases.
• From a height of approx. 20 km the amount of
oxygen decreases at a rate of 0.3 % per 1 km.
• At a height of approx. 60 km and above no more
oxygen is found.
• The lower levels of the atmosphere also contain
water vapour
• The amount of water vapour which the air can ’hold’
 Gases in the Atmosphere
• The atmosphere contains from sea level to 20 km
height:
 Nitrogen 78%
 Oxygen 21%
 Argon 0.9%
 Carbon dioxide 0.03%
 Neon 0.0012%
 Water vapour 0.0010%
 Helium 0.0004%
 Water Vapour
• As stated before the amount of water vapour in
the air depends on the air temperature and, to a
lesser extent, on the air pressure
Example:
 1 m3 of saturated air at a temperature of 20 °C
contains 17.2 grams of water vapour. If the air
temperature falls to 10°C, then half of this water
vapour will be ’squeezed’ out of the air in the form
of water droplets, resulting either in cloud
formation or rainfall
 Humidity
• The amount of water which is present in the air.
Relative humidity
• Gives an indication of how much of its total
capacity to absorb water has been taken up.
Example
• ’0 % relative humidity’ indicates that the air is
’perfectly dry’, i.e. it contains no water at all. This is
an unlikely condition outside a laboratory
• ’100 % relative humidity’ (i.e. saturated air),
however, is not uncommon. It means that the air
has absorbed all the water it is able to do.
•
 CONT.
• The degree of humidity affects the air density to
a great extent. A high relative humidity decreases
the density of the affected air mass, low relative
humidity increases its density.

• Water vapour is considered to be the lightest

component of air, thus, the greater concentration
of water vapour arises the ’lighter’ (less dens)
the air will be.
 Atmospheric Pressure
• The atmospheric pressure is the weight of the air
over a given area.
• If we can imagine a column of air having a base
area of 1 cm² and stretching to the outer limits
of the atmosphere then the total weight of this
volume of air acts upon 1 cm² of the earth’s
surface.
• The higher we ascend in the atmosphere, the
less will be the weight of air remaining above,
and therefore the less will be the pressure.
 CONT.
• This occurs because the air mass near the earth’s
surface is compressed by the air above it, and as
we go higher the air pressure becomes less.
• Atmospheric pressure varies also with the
temperature, the density of the air and its
humidity (the amount of water vapour).
 CONT.
• It can be seen that there are considerable
variations in the properties of the atmosphere, i.e.
in pressure, temperature, density and humidity.
• To allow for comparison of e.g. flight performance
data which have probably been obtained under
different atmospheric conditions a ’standard
atmosphere’ for reference is needed.
• The international standard atmosphere (ISA) has
been defined by the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) which is used as a reference
for variations in the atmosphere at different
latitudes and altitudes.
 Standard Atmosphere
• At sea level the standard atmosphere ISA is
defined by the following figures:
 Air Pressure: 1,013.25 hectoPascal (hPa)
 Air Temperature: +15 °C
 Air Density: 1.249 kg/m3
 Relative Humidity: 0 %
 Temperature Lapse: -6.5 °C per 1,000 m.
• Related atmospheric temperature and pressure at
various altitudes as defined by ICAO
Altitude (m) Temperature (°C) Pressure (hPa)

0 15.0 1,013.25

1,000 8.5 898.73

5,000 -17.5 540.15

10,000 -50.0 264.31

11,000 -56.5 226.32

15,000 -56.5 120.44

20,000 -56.5 54.75

 Cont.

• Above 11,000 m the temperature remains

constant at -56.5 °C up to a height of approx.
20,000 m after which the temperature begins
to increase again because of the influence of
the sun.
 Fundamentals of Aerodynamics
OBJECTIVES
• Define the term ’aerodynamics’
• Name the different aerodynamic effects and
energies
• Comprehend Bernoulli’s principle and the Venturi
effect
• Explain the terms ’static pressure’, ’dynamic
pressure’ and ’total pressure’ and state their
relationship
 Fundamentals of Aerodynamics
• Aerodynamics’ is the study of the interaction
between the air and solid bodies moving in it.
REVISE
• Law of Conservation of Energy
• Newton’s first, second and third law of motion
 CONT.
• Newton’s third law of motion states that for every
action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
 Aircraft, helicopters, gliders and autogyros
produce their lift by pushing down on a mass of
air. They are supported in the air when they force
down an amount of air equal to their own weight.
 This is determined basically by the density of the
air through which they are flying and the speed
with which they pass through the air.
 CONT.
• Today, ’aerodynamics’ is normally restricted to the
study of dynamic flight, i.e. the behaviour of
aircraft that are heavier than air.
• For the first time the idea, that a heavier-than-air
vehicle basically faces 2 major problems, was
clearly defined and documented by Sir George
Cayley (1773-1857).
• In his papers and notes he separated the problem
of sustenation (lift) from the problem of drag
which, according to him, must be compensated by
propulsion in order to maintain level flight.
 Cont.
• Aerodynamics today is normally restricted to the
study of dynamic flight, i.e. the behaviour of
aircraft that are heavier than air
 Kinetic, Potential and Total Energy
Kinetic Energy
• Kinetic energy is that energy which is associated
with motion.
• Speeding up the movement of air or any object
increases its kinetic energy
• KE = ⅟2mv²
• Where m = mass
• v= velocity
 Potential Energy
• Potential energy is the energy possessed by a
body because of its position or its
configuration.
• The potential energy of air relates to its
pressure, and increasing its pressure increases
its potential energy.
• PE = mgh
• Where, m = mass
• g = gravitational force
• h = height
 Total Energy
• The total energy of the air is the sum of the
kinetic and the potential energy
 Bernoulli’s Principle
• This principle states that if the total amount of
energy in the air remains constant, any increase
in kinetic energy will cause an equal decrease in
potential energy
 CONT.
• According to Bernoulli’s principle the volume of
air entering the tube must be the same as the
volume of air leaving it over the same given
period.
• Therefore the air in the centre of the tube has to
accelerate in order to pass through the smaller
diameter if the same volume is to leave the tube.
• This acceleration through the narrow part
causes a decrease in pressure
 CONT.
• Bernoulli’s theorem for the continuity of
incompressible flow can mathematically be
expressed as:
P₁ + ⅟₂ ρ c₁² = P₂ + ⅟₂ ρ C₂² = CONSTANT

• where: p₁ = pressure at station 1

p₂ = pressure at station 2
ρ = density of gas
c₁ = velocity of gas at station 1
c₂ = velocity of gas at station 2.
 Air Pressure
Static Pressure
• The weight of the air in the atmosphere creates a
pressure. This is called the static pressure, i.e. the
pressure caused by still air.
• The static pressure acts equally into all directions.
• Therefore the forces caused by the static pressure
and which act on any object are balanced.
• There is no resultant force at all acting on the
object.
• At sea level the ICAO standard atmosphere defines
the static pressure as being 1,013.25 hPa.
 Static pressure Cont.
In still air
 Dynamic Pressure
• Air in motion possesses
additional energy due to its
speed.
• If this moving air is brought to
rest on a surface the energy
released causes an increase in
pressure in addition to the
atmospheric pressure.
• The additional pressure
registered on this surface is
known as dynamic pressure.
 Cont.
• Any object in still air will experience equal
pressures in all directions, but an object in
moving air will experience an additional
pressure in the direction of the motion of air.
• At low speeds the dynamic pressure is small
compared with the static pressure.
• However, at high speeds the dynamic
pressure increases considerably.
 Total Pressure
• The total pressure is the sum of the static
pressure and dynamic pressure.
• It can mathematically be expressed as:
• Pt = Ps + Pd
• where:
Ps = static pressure
Pd = dynamic pressure.
 Aerodynamics of the Airfoil
• An airfoil is a specially shaped body designed to
react on the flow of air that passes over it.
 Cont.
• It is determined to a great extend by the
shape of the surface.
• This reaction (or, actually: a combination of
reactions) is known as aerodynamic lift and
drag.
SUBSONIC AIRFOILS
 Cont.
CHORD LINE
• Imaginary line from leading edge of the airfoil to
the trailing edge
SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL
• It has the same curve on each side of the chord
line
ASYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL
• The shapes of the top and the bottom of an
asymmetrical airfoil are different to each other,
with the upper side being larger than the lower
 Aerodynamic Lift and Drag
• Aerodynamic lift is the upward force induced by
the airflow over the airfoil and directly opposes
the weight of the aircraft
 Cont.
• This increase in speed on the upper surface
causes a pressure drop and the decrease in
speed along the bottom surface cause a pressure
increase.
• It is this pressure difference which causes the
airfoil to be lifted.
• As the air flows over an airfoil it speeds up when
passing the upper surface and slows down along
the bottom surface.
 Centre Of Pressure (CP)
• Lift is distributed over the whole airfoil but is
largest near the leading edge, where the air
accelerates fastest because of the round edge.
• The airfoil is said to achieve 65 % of the lift from
the upper surface because of the lower pressure
and 35 % from the lower surface because of the
higher pressure occurring there
 Cont.
• Centre Of Pressure (CP)
is a imaginary point
where the sum of all
lifting forces are
considered to act.
• The sum of the lifting
forces is called the
’resultant lift’ and acts
upward and backwards
from the centre of
pressure.
 Cont.
• The centre of pressure is, for most airfoils,
usually at a distance of approx. 25 % of the
chord length from the leading edge, but varies
with the angle of attack.
 The Resultant Lift
• The resultant lift acting L = Lift D= Drag
on the airfoil does not act R= Resultant W= Weight
vertically upwards but α= Angle of attack
slightly towards the
trailing edge.
• If this force is split into its
vertical and horizontal
components the vertical
force is representing the
lift and the horizontal
force the drag (or, to be
more precise: the
induced drag). Components Of Resultant Lift
 Stagnation Point
• This is the point on
an airfoil where the
airflow separates so
that some of it can
pass over the top
and the rest along
the bottom of the
wing.
• Its movement is very
important for warning
of an impending stall.
 Cont.
• The amount of lift produced by
aerodynamic action is determined by 3
factors:

 The surface area of the airfoil

 The lift coefficient of the airfoil
 The dynamic pressure of the air (speed of air
passing over the airfoil).
 Airfoil Surface Area
• This is the most obvious of the 3 factors: the
larger the airfoil, the greater will be the lift if
all other factors remain the same.
 Airfoil Lift Coefficient
• A coefficient is a dimension-less number used in
a formula to express the action of a variable
• The lift coefficient is determined by 2 variables
 The shape of the airfoil
 The angle of attack.
 Cont.
• When an airfoil is designed, its shape is
mathematically conceived, and a test section
is made and placed in a wind tunnel; then
measurements are made of the lift and drag at
various angles of attack.
• The results are plotted as a family of curves.
There are hundreds of airfoil shapes. Each
shape has its own set of curves
 Cont.
Angle Of Attack
• Which is the angle between the chord line of the
section and the relative wind
• As the angle of attack increases, the coefficient of
lift increases.
• At a certain point it peaks out and drops.
• This is the critical angle of attack because,
beyond this angle the air flowing over the surface
of the airfoil breaks away and no lift can be
produced, the drag increases and this can cause
the airfoil to stall.
 Dynamic Pressure of the Air
• The dynamic pressure may be mathematically
calculated to determine the mass of air the airfoil
can force down.
• To make this calculation we must consider the
density of the air and the speed of the air over the
airfoil.
• This calculation is the potential lift of the airfoil,
e.g. if an aircraft wing moving through the air
forces down 1,000 kg of air, the equal and
opposite reaction will force up 1,000 kg of aircraft.
 Boundary Layer
• The boundary layer is a very thin layer of air
lying over the surface of the wing (and, for that
matter, all other surfaces of the airplane)
 Boundary Layer cont.
• At an angle of attack of
approx. 14° the airflow
breaks away from the
surface at the trailing
edge. This is called
’separation’.
• As the angle of attack
increases the point of
separation moves
towards the leading edge
until the stall point is
reached
RM 7
 Cont.
• If the surface of an airfoil could be perfectly smooth and
the air flowing over it was not viscous the air would pass
smoothly without any friction drag.
• But this is not the case: air is viscous and tends to stick
to anything over which it flows.
• At the very surface of the airfoil the air velocity is near
zero.
• The surface roughness of the airfoil caused by dirt,
rivets, frost etc. creates local turbulence which causes
the airflow on the surface to flow in a random pattern,
sometimes even reversing its direction.
 Boundary Layer
• Is the random flow of air over the airfoil
• It is important that it is kept as thin as
possible.
Laminar Flow
• When the boundary layer is smooth, and the
air flows in layers, it is said to have ’laminar
flow’.
• Friction drag is relatively low
 Turbulent Flow
• If the surface is rough,
however, or if the air
slows down, it will no
longer flow smoothly
but will become
turbulent.
• i.e the flow is rather
rough and the friction
drag is higher
RM 5
Change that occurs as the angle of
attack is increased.
 Cont.

• Lift can be increased by increasing the angle of attack.

• As a rough guide it can be said: if the angle of attack is
doubled then the lift is doubled (likewise the drag).
• The angle of attack however cannot be increased
indefinitely.
• For most airfoils the maximum angle of attack lies
between 15°- 20°.
• Above this point total separation of the boundary
layer occurs and the airfoil loses lift dramatically.
 Cont.
• This condition is known as ’stall’
 Drag

• The force of resistance experienced by a body

moving through the air

• It is the resistance to motion through a fluid, i.e.

an aircraft in flight.
• The drag experienced by an aircraft in flight
arises in several different ways
 Types of Drag
• When the wings are
producing lift the drag Induced Drag
is increased, and this
additional drag is
called Induced Drag
• Induced drag is the
portion of drag on an
aircraft that is built up
due to lift and its
proportional to the lift
being produce
 Cont.
• The induced drag is associated with the wing tip
vortices which are formed because of the
pressure difference between the upper and the
lower wing surfaces.
• This pressure difference causes a flow of air
around the wing tip.
• The existence of the vortices shows that energy
is being lost in creating the swirling motion of air
in the vortices.
• Therefore additional drag is associated with the
formation of the vortices
 Cont.
• If the lift being produced is increased (this is
brought about by creating a larger pressure
difference between the top and the bottom
surfaces) a stronger vortex is produced.
• The strength of the vortex and the related
induced drag caused by this vortex are
proportional to the lift.
Cont.
 Profile drag

• If the aircraft were moving along at an angle of

attack such that the wing would no longer
produce lift, there would still be drag.

• The profile drag is a 2-dimensional drag of a

body excluding that due to lift.
 Cont.
• It is the sum of the surface friction and the form
drag

• The profile drag on an aircraft can be further divided

into form drag, skin friction drag and interference
drag.

• To reduce these types of drag the elongation of the

trailing edge becomes as important as the rounding
of the leading edge.
Smooth airflow over the entire surface
reduces profile drag
 Total Drag
• Total drag of an aircraft consists of ’profile
drag plus induced drag’
Cont.
 Form Drag
• It is that portion of the resistance which occurs
when a viscous fluid flows against a solid object.
• Vortices are formed and there is no longer a
smooth streamline flow.
• The extreme example of this type of resistance is
a flat plate placed at right angles to the wind.
• The resistance is very large and is almost entirely
due to the formation of vortices
 Cont.
• Experiments show that the pressure in front of
the plate is greater than the atmospheric
pressure and the pressure behind is less than
that of the atmosphere.
• This causes a kind of ’sucking’ effect on the plate.

• Form drag can be considerably reduced by

streamlining
 Cont.
• If a flat plate and a sphere of the same diameter are
placed in the airflow, it can be observed that the
sphere has a much lower drag than the plate
(approx. 50 %).
• This is because the air separates more smoothly
round the front face of the sphere (and the air is
slowed down less)
• Additionally the air follows the surface of the sphere
for some way around the rear before it separates.
• The turbulent wake region is thus much narrower
than that behind the flat plate.
Cont.
 Cont.
• If a streamlined shape with the same frontal
area to the airflow as the sphere is placed in
the airflow at the same speed, the drag is
found to be even lower than that of the sphere.
• This is because the more gradual taper on the
tail allows the airflow to remain attached to the
surface almost until reaching the trailing edge
before separation occurs. This gives a very low
drag and a narrow wake.
Cont.
RM 5
 Skin Friction Drag
• As the airflow passes over the aircraft, it tends to
’stick’ to the aircraft skin. This is called skin
friction drag.
• This can be reduced by having smooth
streamlined surfaces on the aircraft
• As the air flows over the surface of an airfoil it is
slowed down due to the friction of the air with
the aircraft skin.
• This slowing down takes place within the
boundary layer.
 Cont.
• The slowing down of the air in the boundary
layer occurs because the air is viscous.
• The drag caused by a laminar boundary layer is
lower than that of a turbulent layer.
• It is important to keep the boundary layer
laminar to obtain low drag.
• The laminar flow can be maintained over a
greater distance if the pressure gradient is
favourable
RM 24
 Cont.
• When the airflow passes the point of maximum
curvature of the upper surface of the airfoil the
dynamic pressure begins to decrease and the
static pressure to increase.
• Because the static pressure is increasing further
back along the wing the airflow is disturbed and
turbulence is set up thereby thickening the
boundary layer thickens. This is called ’adverse
pressure gradient’.
 Cont.
 Adverse Pressure Gradient: Occurs when the
static pressure increase in the direction of flow

• The skin friction drag also depends on the

roughness of the surface.
• A rough surface causes the transition from
smooth flow to turbulence to occur sooner
thereby increasing the drag.
• Roughness in a region of flow which is already
turbulent will also cause an increase in drag.
Cont.
 Interference Drag
• Interference drag is the resistance caused by the
effect of one part on another
• On a complete aircraft, total drag is found to be
greater than the sum of the drags of the individual
parts.
• This is the result of the interference flow at the
junction of the wing and other components to the
fuselage which modifies the pressure variations
around the components and which causes earlier
separation.
• Interference drag can be reduced by fairing the
junctions between the components.
Cont.
 Pressure Drag
• Pressure drag is the sum of all the aerodynamic
forces normal to the surface. It is the sum of
form drag and induced drag
Wave Drag
• Wave drag is the drag caused by the generation
of shock waves on an aircraft
 Theory of Flight Control
Objectives
• State the need for flight controls
• Define the types of stability
• List the primary and secondary flight controls
• Describe the effects of primary and secondary
flight controls
• Explain the principles of fixed-- and of rotary--
wing flight control
 Need for Flight Controls
• The need for flight controls arose after powered
flying, i.e. flights of heavier-than-air machines,
became possible.
• Lighter-than-air flight vehicles could not be
controlled directly, e.g. it was only possible to
have a crude control over the rate of
ascent/descent of balloons but the direction of
flight, i.e. the course, and the speed were
completely dependent on the wind.
 Cont.
• Even with powered, heavier-than-air flying
machines there were other problems to be
solved before serious attention was given to
means of control in flight.
• The most serious problems were structured
and aerodynamic stability of the aircraft.
• The early flying machines were designed to be
structurally safe and stable in flight.
 Cont.
The early objectives were:
 Get off the ground safely
 Remain airborne in a stable flight condition
 Land safely, i.e. Without damaging the structure.

• These simple objectives had to be fulfilled

before the need for improved flight controls
became necessary.
 Cont.
• The question of control arose only after the
problem of stability had been solved, or, in short
terms: to be safe, the aircraft had to be stable
and to be of practical use, it had to be
controllable.
4 Forces Act Upon An Aircraft In Flight
 The Relationship of the Forces
• Lift depends on the wing area and the forward
speed (thrust). The higher the speed, the
greater the lift will be.
• Drag depends on the area exposed to the
airflow. lt also in-creases with speed (thrust).
• Thrust depends on the engine power
available, and the weight of the aircraft. ln
flight, i.e. with the same power setting, thrust
increases as weight decreases. At the same
time lift requirements decrease as the weight
decreases
The Practical Use Of Flight Controls
• Better control of the take--off operations by
increasing lift
• Better control of descent/landing by
increasing lift or drag
• Performance of flight manoeuvres by varying
lift or drag.
Factors Affecting the Design of a Flight Control
System
• Weight of the aircraft
• Dimensions of the aircraft
• Operating range of altitude
• Operating range of speed
• Degree of stability required
 Weight of the Aircraft
• The force required to operate the controls of
an aircraft is directly related to its weight.
• The heavier the aircraft, the greater operating
forces and the required degree of control
’authority’, i.e. the range of movement of the
controls.
 Dimensions of the Aircraft
• The dimensions of an aircraft are related to its
weight in many cases.
• ln precise terms, the relation ’wing area to
weight’ is important.
• The higher the wing loading, the greater the
control operating forces and vice versa
 Operating Range of Altitudes
• The operating range of altitudes is an important
factor because of the changes in air density.
• For instance, the high air density at low altitudes
does not require/permit large degrees of control
authority.
• On the other hand, lower air densities at higher
altitudes require/permit larger degrees of
control authority.
• The operating force requirement, however,
would be less than that required at low altitudes
 Operating Range of Speeds
• The operating range of speeds imposes certain
limitations on the design of flight controls.
• For operation at high speeds high control forces are
required.
• At the same time, the degree of control authority is to
be kept low.
• High-speed aircraft are normally designed for high-
altitude flight operations
• However, these aircraft will have to fly at lower altitudes
during the climb-out and the descent phases.
• This means that the flight controls must cope with a
wide range of speeds and altitudes.
 Degree of Stability
• The degree of stability is a very important
factor as it limits the degree of control for any
particular category of aircraft.
• Stability is defined as the property (or
capability) of a system (aircraft) to return to
(or remain in) a state of equilibrium after
having been disturbed from a state of steady
and unaccelerated flight.
 Cont.
• This definition, applied to an aircraft, will read:
• ’An aircraft is statically stable if it returns to its
steady flight condition, i.e. to the state of static
equilibrium, as soon as the disturbing force stops
acting.’
• An aircraft must have a certain level of dynamic
stability in addition to static stability:
 Cont.
• ’An aircraft is dynamically stable if it returns to
its original steady flight attitude, i.e. to the state
of dynamic equilibrium, without undergoing
large changes in pitch attitude.’
• Dynamic stability refers to the oscillatory
behaviour of an aircraft in response to a
disturbing force
 Cont.
• Some aircraft recover their original steady flight
attitude without undergoing large displacements
in pitch.
• Other aircraft may need large displacements.
• Unstable aircraft will never recover the original
attitude again at all
• The oscillating behaviour of an aircraft in relation
to the time taken for a complete recovery is a
measure of dynamic stability.
• Complete recovery should, of course, be
possible without any pilot’s effort.
 Cont.
• Static and dynamic stabilities are further
classified according to the nature of the aircraft
response to forces tending to displace it from a
steady flight path:
 Positive Stability

• Stability is said to be
’positive’ when the
aircraft is able to
recover its original
steady flight path
without requiring
correction
 Negative Stability
• Stability is said to be
’negative’ if the
disturbing forces and
moments cause the
aircraft to assume an
entirely different
attitude
 Neutral Stability
• Stability is said to be
’neutral’ when the
aircraft, after
displacement, maintains
the displaced attitude,
i.e. it will recover its
original attitude only
after correction
 Cont.
• Summing up, static stability is an essential
pre-requisite for dynamic stability.
• The converse is not true.
• This means that it is possible to have a
statically stable system without necessarily
being dynamically stable.
• On the other hand a statically unstable aircraft
will never have dynamic stability.
Control Axes, Primary and Secondary Controls

Axes of Control
An aircraft has 3 axes of control:
 The longitudinal axis
 The lateral axis
 The vertical axis.
Axes of Control and
Displacements
 Cont.
Longitudinal Axis
• It runs along the centre of the fuselage, from
the nose to the tail.
• Movement about this axis is called ’rolling’,
the aircraft is said to roll.
Lateral Axis
• It runs spanwise from wing tip to wing tip.
• Movement about this axis is called ’pitching’,
the aircraft is said to pitch.
 Vertical Axis
• It passes vertically through the centre of the
aircraft.
• Movement about this axis is called ’yawing’,
the aircraft is said to yaw
 Classification of Flight Controls
Flight controls are broadly classified into
• Primary controls
• Secondary controls.

• The primary flight controls are used to move

the aircraft about one of the 3 primary control
axes.
Movements of Primary Flight Controls
The 3 primary flight controls and the
resulting movements are:
Ailerons:
• For rolling, operated by sideward movement of
the control wheel
Elevators:
• For pitch, operated by fore and aft movements
of the control column
Rudder:
• For yawing, operated by the rudder pedals
 Secondary Flight Controls
• Trimming devices
• Control force reducing devices
• Lift control devices
• Drag increasing devices

• Tabs are commonly used as trimming or control force

reducing devices.
• A tab may be fitted to the trailing edge of one of the
primary control surfaces.
• When used as a trimming device it is controlled separately.
• When used as a control force reducing device it is moved
automatically, or indirectly, to produce the desired effect.
Types Secondary Flight Controls
 Lift Control Devices
• Flaps
• Slats
• Spoilers
• Speed brakes
FLAPS
• Flaps are used to increase the lift of the wings at
slow speeds, e.g. for take-off and landing.
• Certain types of flap, like the split flap may also
be used to increase drag for steep rates of
descent
 Slats
• Slats are wing-mounted leading-edge devices for
increasing the lift at high angles of attack (at slow
speeds).
• They may be of the automatic or of the controllable
type.
• The automatic types are usually spring-fitted and
operate under the influence of aerodynamic forces.
• The controllable types are mechanically operated in
conjunction with flaps, or even independently.
• Slats have a stabilizing effect on the airflow over the
wing at high angles of attack.
 Spoilers
• Spoilers are wing-mounted devices used for
spoiling lift.
• They are operated mechanically before the
landing to dump lift.
• Certain types may be operated together with
controls (ailerons) for better roll control.

• Other types, known as ground spoilers, are

operated after landing.
• Spoilers have a de-stabilizing effect on the airflow
over the wing at any angle of attack.
 Speed Brakes
• Speed brakes are wing or fuselage mounted
devices.
• They are operated mechanically, and act as
aerodynamic brakes.
• Speed brakes are used to increase rates of
descent, or enable steeper dives and improve
manoeuvrability of high-speed aircraft
 Principles of Fixed-wing Flight Control
• All types of aircraft are designed to meet
certain basic criteria which influence the
design of their flight control system.
• These are:
 Stability
 Controllability
 Manoeuvrability
 Stability

• Is the characteristic of an aircraft which

enables it to be flown ’hands off’ in a straight
and level flight condition.
• Stability considerations are dictated by
operational needs, i.e. the type of aircraft.
• For instance, transport aircraft must have a
high degree of stability.
• A somewhat lesser degree of stability is
required for trainer aircraft.
• Stability requirements are least for a fighter
aircraft
 Cont.
Controllability
• Is the quality of the aircraft’s response to the
pilot’s control inputs, i.e. controllability refers
to the rate of change of attitude in response to
control inputs.
Manoeuvrability
• Is the ability of an aircraft to be flown along a
desired flight path without overstressing the
structure or the flight control system.
Principles of Primary Flight Controls
Longitudinal Control
 Longitudinal Control Cont.
• Longitudinal control is exercised by means of elevators.
• These are hinge-mounted at the trailing edge of the
horizontal stabilizer.
• The elevators are operated by fore-and-aft movements of
the control column.
• ln the neutral position of the control column the elevators
are also at ’neutral’. The aircraft maintains a steady altitude.
• lf the control column is moved back the elevators move up.
• This creates a loss of lift at the tail making it moving down.
• This down-movement of the tail causes the nose of the
aircraft to move upwards.
• .
 Longitudinal Control Cont.
• The aircraft assumes a climbing attitude

• lf the control is moved forward the elevators

move down.
• There is an increase in stabilizer lift, which
makes the tail to move upwards.
• When the tail moves up the nose of the
aircraft moves down and the aircraft assumes
a diving attitude
Lateral Control
 Lateral Control Cont.
• Lateral control is exercised by means of
ailerons which are hinge-mounted to the
trailing edge of the wing.
• ln the neutral position of the control wheel
the ailerons are also at neutral.
• The aircraft maintains a steady lateral attitude
(’wings level’ condition) because is no
difference between the lift of the left and that
of the right wing section
 Lateral Control Cont.
• lf the control wheel is moved to the left, the left
aileron is displaced upwards and, at the same time,
the right aileron is displaced downwards.
• The up-going (left) aileron reduces the lift at the left
wing causing the wing to slightly descend.
• The down-going (right) aileron increases the lift at the
right wing which results in an up-going of the wing.
• This causes a rolling moment to the left and the
aircraft assumes a banking attitude to the left.
• The opposite effect is obtained if the control wheel is
moved towards the right.
Directional Control
 Directional Control Cont.
• Directional control is exercised by means of the
rudder.
• lt is hinge-mounted to the trailing edge of the
vertical stabilizer.
• The rudder is operated by moving the appropriate
rudder pedals.
• Pushing the left pedal moves the rudder to the left.
• Pushing the right pedal moves the rudder to the
right.
 Directional Control Cont.
• In both cases the airflow behind the vertical
stabilizer is changed, making the tail move to
the right or left.
• The response of the aircraft’s nose is into the
opposite direction, i.e. into the direction of
the pedal used.
 Principles of Rotary-wing Flight Control

The main differences between fixed and rotary-

wing aircraft:
• The fixed-wing aircraft derives its lift from fixed
lifting surfaces (wing) whereby the rotary--wing
aircraft derives its lift from a rotating surface
(rotor/rotor plane).
• The fixed-wing aircraft generally requires
separate surfaces for stability and control, the
rotary-wing aircraft meets stability requirements
by making use of its main and auxiliary rotors.
 Differences cont.
• Fixed-wing aircraft are controllable to a
greater extent under power-off flight
conditions - rotary-wing aircraft are
controllable only to a limited extent under
power off conditions
The Similarities between fixed and rotary-
wing aircraft:
• In flight both types are acted upon by the
same 4 forces
 Lift
 Thrust
 Weight
 Drug
• This implies that rotary--wing aircraft may also
be put to pitching, rolling and yawing motions
 Similarities cont.
• Both types have the same 3 axes of control:
 Longitudinal
 Lateral
 Vertical.
Special Effects of the Rotor
 Cont.
• Rotary-wing aircraft are subject to a certain
force called ’rotor torque’.
• The rotor rotates in a particular direction. The
natural reaction of the fuselage is to start
rotating into the opposite direction.
• This torque effect is related to the rotor’s speed
and the power applied to the rotor.
• Any increase in engine power will also increase
the torque effect.
 Cont.
• Rotor torque is normally compensated by an
auxiliary rotor (or: tail rotor) driven by the
engine at a higher speed than the main rotor.
• The tail rotor is also designed to provide
differential lateral thrust for directional
control.
• The thrust of the tail rotor counteracts the
main rotor torque by the correct amount
under all conditions.
 Other Methods Of Counteracting The Main
Rotor Torque
• Use of a vane in the main rotor slipstream by
differential tilt of rotor thrusts (only possible if
the helicopter has intermeshing rotors) by
differential torque between 2 rotors (only
possible if the helicopter has co-axial rotors).
Cont.
 Cont.
FENESTRON NOTAR
 Special Effect Of The Rotor
• Another special effect of the rotor during
rotation is its property of gyroscopic
precession.
• This means that it will resist any force which
tends to change its plane of rotation.
• This factor is taken into consideration in the
design of the control system
Asymmetric Distribution Of Lift
 Cont.
• A third special effect of the rotor is the asymmetric
distribution of lift under certain flight conditions.
• Forward flight or hovering against the wind affect
lift distribution. The advancing blade gains lift as
the retreating blade loses lift.
• If not corrected this would create a rolling moment
and a lateral instability.
• The asymmetric lift takes effect at the point where
both blades are at right angles to the line of flight.
 Cont.
• Rotor hubs are designed to permit vertical and
horizontal movement of the blade roots.
• The vertical freedom of movement allows the
advancing blade to lower its pitch and the
retracting blade to increase its pitch.
 Flight Control of Rotary-wing Aircraft
• Basically the helicopter has to be controlled
about the 3 main axes longitudinal, lateral,
and vertical.
• The helicopter has 3 main flight control
devices in the cockpit. These are:
 Cyclic pitch control
 Collective pitch control
 Pedals for directional control
Cont.
Primary Flight Controls
cyclic pitch control
• The cyclic pitch control is
connected by a
mechanical linkage to the
rotor head.
• It changes the pitch of
each individual main
rotor blade during a cycle
of rotations in any
segment of the disc
(rotor plane).
Collective Pitch Control
• The collective pitch
control can increase or
decrease the pitch of all
rotor blades together.
• This increases or
decreases the vertical lift.
• Since an increase of lift
normally requires
increased engine power,
the grip of the collective
pitch lever is used to
control the engine
(throttle function).
 Pedals For Directional Control.
• The pedals are similar to the rudder pedals of
fixed-wing aircraft.
• They are mechanically connected to the pitch-
changing mechanisms of the anti--torque tail rotor.
• Pushing the left or right pedal increases thrust into
the desired directions.
• Keeping the pedals in the neutral position keeps
the tail rotor at an angle and at a rotational speed
sufficient to counteract engine torque at normal
revolutions.
• The use of flight controls of rotary-wing aircraft
can be explained as follows:

 Yawing movements are obtained by pushing the

appropriate pedal to change the tail rotor thrust
as required.

 Rolling movements are obtained by moving the

cyclic pitch control to the left or right. This tilts the
rotor disc to the right or left, by changing the pitch
of each rotor blade during one cycle of rotation.
• Pitching movements are obtained by moving the
cycle pitch control fore or aft.

• For instance, as the cyclic stick is moved forwards

the angle of attack is decreased as the rotor blades
pass at the right side of the helicopter.

• The angle of attack is increased as the blades pass

at the left side