080 – Principles of flight

Subsonic aerodynamic

- While increasing AOA : the point of stagnation moves down and the point of low pressure move forward
- Transition point = laminar to turbulent
- Turbulent boundary layer has less tendency to separate from the surface
- Critical AOA unchanged regardless of gross weight
- Location of the CP is independent of AOA
- Behind the transition point in a boundary layer = the mean speed and friction drag increases
- The flow on the upper surface of the wing has a component in wing root direction
- Aerofoil polar = graph of the relation between Cl and Cd
- The streamlines converge the static pressure in the flow will decrease
- Parabolic polar : minimum glide angle and the parasite drag coefficient
- The aerodynamic centre of the wing is the point where the pitching moment coefficient does not vary with
angle of attack
- The turbulent boundary layer has more kinetic energy than the laminar one
- No velocity components exist in a laminar layer

- Swept wing : Least sensitive to turbulence

- Sweepback wing increases the Mcrit and the drag divergence Mach number
- Swept back wing : tip stall will occur first → nose-up pitching moment
- Swept back wing at stall : CP moves forward
- Increasing forward sweep increases stall speed
- Deep stall = swept back wings and T-tail
- Highest local lift coefficient = rectangular form
- Straight wing at stall : CP moves aft
- Straight wing = nose down before stall
- Elliptical lift distribution reduces induced drag
- When trailing edge flaps are extended, CP moves aft
- Trailing edge flaps extended : decreases the critical AOA and increase the value of CLmax
- Flap asymmetry causes a large rolling moment at any speed
- The AOA at CLmax with trailing edge flaps extended is smaller
- When spoilers are extended, CD is increased and CL is decreased
- Spoiler extension increases the stall speed, the minimum rate and angle of descent
- Slat extension delays stall at higher AOA
- Highest positive contribution to CLmax is slats from retracted to extended
- Slat asymmetry causes a large difference in CLmax
- Dorsal fin =positive lateral stability
- Ventral fin = negativ lateral stability
- Stall fence improve the low speed handling characteristics
- Positively cambered aerofoil section : Cl=0 → AOA<0 and nose down pitching moment
- When speed is increased in a positively cambered aerofoil : CP moves aft and total lift remains constant
- Negatively cambered aerofoil : Cl=0 → nose up pitching moment
- Taper ratio : tip chord / root chord
- g force : bobweight in the control system

- Interference drag comes from interaction between fuselage part

- Induced drag is created by the span wise flow pattern resulting in the tip vortices
- Winglets decreases the induced drag
- Minimum drag = max CL/CD ratio
- Area rule = transonic design to decrease wave drag
- Load factor = lift / weight
- Highest local lift coefficient is he rectangular shape
- Induced drag is inversely proportional to aspect ratio
- Lowest value of lift = aft CG and TO thrust
- Highest value of lift = forward CG and idle thrust
- Wing tip has the largest effect on induced drag
 - At normal AOA : CL>CD
- High aspect ratio = decreasing induced drag and critical AOA
- Lift is generated when the flow direction of a certain mass of air is changed
- Induced drag is the result of downwash generated over the wing
- Total drag = pressure drag + skin friction drag
- Ice accretion = reduction in CLmax
- Ground effect :
 CL increases at constant AOA, lift increases
 Induced drag decreases, downwash angle decreases, induced AOA decreases, drag decreases
- During a straight steady descent, lift is less than weight, because lift only needs to balance the weight
component perpendicular to the flight
- Wing twist is used to improve stall characteristics and reduce induced drag
- Increasing dynamic pressure… at speed greater than the minimum drag speed, drag increases
Di
- =1
Dp

- Dihedral = angle between the 0,25 chord line of the wing and the lateral axis
- Effective pitch angle = actual distance
- AOA = angle between the undisturbed airflow and the chord line
- Angle of incidence = angle between the longitudinal axis and the wing root chord line
- Pitch angle (blade) = angle between its longitudinal axis and the horizontal plane
- Flight path (helix) = angle between its speed vector and the horizontal plane
- Sideslip : angle between the speed vector and the plane of symmetry
- Bank angle : between the horizontal plane and lateral axis
- The MAC is the chord of a rectangular wing with same moment and lift
- Stall speed are determined with the CG at the forward limit
- Minimum control speeds are determined with the CG at the aft limit
- Wing sweep angle = angle between the quarter-chord line of the wing and the lateral axis
- Stall warning devices = stick shaker and stall strip
- Geometric chord of a wing : wing area divided by the wing span
- 3 dimensional : span wise component
- Jet engine aeroplane’s polar curve : Long range, max range, L/D max, Min Vz, CL max (2,5,3,4,1)
- Wing loading = aircraft weight / Wing area
1 1
- Bernoulli’s law : pstat + ρV 2=cste pdyn= ρTA S2 P tot = pstat + p dyn
2 2
- Span wise = from the lower to the upper by the tip
1
- Cl=
V²
- Wing area decreases = AR decreases = load factor decreases
- Altitude/weight decreases = load factor decreases (less dynamic pressure, more mass to accelerate)

- Stall speed increases with altitude due to compressibility effect

- Difference between IAS and TAS will decrease with decreasing altitude
- Increase in wing loading increases the stall speed
- Flutter is dependant of IAS
High speed aerodynamic

- A supercritical wing will develop no noticeable shock waves when flying just above Mcrit
- To increase Mcrit, an aerofoil should have a low thickness to chord ratio
- Mcrit is increased by sweepback, thin aerofoils and area ruling
- Behind of a normal/oblique shock wave:
 Static pressure, static temperature, density, LSS are higher
 Mach number, dynamic pressure, flow speed, total pressure are lower

- In front of an expansion wave:

 Static pressure, static temperature, density, LSS are higher
 Mach number, dynamic pressure, flow speed, total pressure are lower
 - Shock stall occurs when the lift coefficient, as a function of Mach number, reaches its max value
- Mcrit → local sonic flow
- Transonic = subsonic + supersonic speeds
1
- Mach number=
sin(45 °)
- Tuck under = nose down pitching… transonic range = aft CP and decreasing of the downwash
- High speed buffet is induced by boundary layer separation due to shock waves
- Sonic boom = shock waves
- Mach trimmer if at transonic Mach numbers the aeroplane demonstrates unconventional elevator stick force
characteristics
- Mcrit = somewhere about the airframe Mach 1 is reached
- Shock wave moves towards the trailing edge
- Lowest Mcrit = thick and large
- Vortex generators decrease the shock wave induced separation
- Tuck only above Mcrit
- Subsonic speed range ends at Mcrit
- Below Mcrit → Dutch roll
- The Mach trim adjust the stabiliser, depending on the Mach number
- In supersonic flight aerofoil pressure distribution is rectangular
- Normal shock wave : the airflow changes from supersonic to subsonic
- A normal shock wave has a higher loss in total pressure and a higher compression

Stability
- Static stick force stability = above the trim speed requires a push force (below – pull)
- Directional controllability with N-1 is adversely affected by low temperature, aft CG, low altitude
- Low speed pitch-up can be caused by a significant thrust increase with podded engines located beneath a low-
mounted wing
- Positive static lateral stability is the tendency of an aeroplane to roll to the left in case of a sideslip
- Negative tail stall is a sudden reduction in the downward aerodynamic force on the tailplane
- Spiral dive = static directional stability is positive and the static lateral stability is relatively weak
- Aft CG limit can be determined by the minimum acceptable static longitudinal stability
- Static stick force stability = maintain a speed below the trim speed required a pull force
- CG ahead of the neutral point = static longitudinal stability
- Dihedral and sweepback increases lateral static stability
- Phugoid = altitude varies significantly
- Short period = altitude remains approximately constant - about the longitudinal axis
- Stick force is dependent on altitude
- Stick force increase when CG moves forward
- Dutch roll increases when static lateral stability increases
- Negative tail stall = uncontrollable pitch-down moment
- Servo tab, horn balance and spring tab decrease manoeuvring stick force
- Stick force stability is not affected by trim
- Turning motion in a co-ordinated turn is created by the centripetal froce
- Wing downwash on the static longitudinal stability is negative
- High wing and large and high vertical fin improve static lateral stability
- Positive camber on the static longitudinal stability : no effect
- Sweepback wing increases static lateral stability

Control surfaces

- Correct for elevator trim tab :

 More drag when trim for zero elevator stick force
 Less control difficulty in case of a trim tab runaway/jammed trim tab
- Correct for horizontal trimmable stabiliser :
 Enables a larger CG range
 More powerful
  Effects of a stabiliser trim runaway are more serious
 More suitable for large jet aeroplanes
- Ailerons deflected upwards = form drag
- Horn balance = decrease stick force
- Mass balancing of control surfaces is used to prevent flutter
- An increase in geometric dihedral in a steady sideslip… increase the required lateral control force
- Trim tab = reduce continuous stick force to zero
- A servo tab only reduces stick force
- When trimmed for zero elevator stick force an elevator trim tab causes more drag
- On fully hydraulic powered flight controls there is a need for mass balancing
- On fully hydraulic powered flight controls there is no need for trim tabs
Limitations

- Va become more limitating at high speed because buffet onset limitations normally become limitating
new mass
- New speed x new mass=old speed x
old mass
- Gust load increases when the weight and altitude decreases
- Max gust intensity speed (Vb) = ± 66 ft/sec
- Design cruise speed (Vc) = ± 50 ft/sec
- Design dive speed (Vd) = ± 25 ft/sec
- AOA increases, speed increases, AR increases, wing area increases = gust load increases
- Altitude increases, weight increases, wing loading increases = gust load decreases
- The gust limit load factor can be higher than the manoeuvring limit load factor
- Va ≥Vs √ 2,5
- VRA = Rough air speed = Vitesse conseillée de pénétration dans une masse d’air turbulente
- Va → limit load factor
- Excessive free play or backlash reduces the speed at which control surface flutter occurs
- V MO <V C
New speed New load
-

-
Old speed
=
√
Old load
Wing mounted engines extending ahead of the wing contribute to wing flutter suppression
- Moving the engines from the wing to the fuselage do not improve wing flutter suppression

Power plant

- Asymmetric blade effect increases when :

 Engine power is increased
 Angle between the propeller axis and airflow through the propeller disc increases
- For any propeller manoeu is the component of the total aerodynamic force on the
propeller parallel to the rotational axis
- Gyroscopic precession of the propeller is induced by pitching and yawing
- Power absorption increases if the mean chord of the blades increases
- Increasing the number of propeller blades will increase the maximum absorption of
power
 - The AOA of a propeller blade is the angle between the chord line and the resultant air speed vector
- The asymmetric blade effect (clockwise rotating propeller) = left yaw
- Propeller solidity = Total blade area / disc area
- Propeller gyroscopic effect occurs during aeroplane pitch changes

Principles of flight

TAS (m/s) ² Vp ( kt )
- Radius= (en m)= (en nm)
g x tan ⁡(bank angle) 200
lift 1
- n= =
weight cos φ
Thrust−drag Thrust 1
Climb gradient= x 100=( − ) x 100
- weight Weight L
D
- VMCG = airport elevation and temperature
- During a straight steady climb : lift is less than weight, load factor is less than 1
- Lift =weight x cos ⁡(climb angle)
- Minimum sink rate speed is less than minimum glide angle speed
- VMC determination : Aft limit
- AOA must be increased in a turn to compensate for the reduction in
the vertical component of lift
- VMCG must be determined using rudder control alone
- VMCG decreases when thrusts decreases
T CD
- sin γ = −
W CL
- Descent = weight > lift
- Load doubles = lift doubles

- Speed increases = gust load increases

- Wing area / AR increases = gust load increases - AR decreases = wing tip vortices increases
- Lift vs AOA increases = gust load increases - AR decreases = critical AOA decreases

- Altitude decreases = gust load increases - 3 dim drag = induced + parasite

- Weight decreases = gust load increases - 2 dim = pressure drag + skin friction

- AR increases = induced drag decreases - Horizontal = neutral stability

- Mass decreases = induced drag decreases - Positive steep = negative stability
- AOA decreases = induced drag decreases - Negative steep = positive stability

- Spoiler extension = VS increases and glide angle increases

 At constant AOA : drag - cd increases and lift - cl decreases
 In straight level flight : drag - cd increases and lift - cl =

- Fowler flaps : cl and cd increases

- Trailing edge flaps extension :

 At constant AOA : cl decreases
 In straight level flight : cl = and CP aft
When retracted to maintain level flight : AOA increases and vortices decreases

- Slat asymmetry = yaw / flap asymmetry = roll

- Vortex generators = decrease the shock wave / transfer energy