Module 5 Standard 2.

 Acquaint in formulation of solution used in the

different layers of atmosphere.
Atmosphere

Module Introduction
The lesson in this module presents the student
some generalities focusing on the standard
properties of air in the atmosphere.

Learning Objectives

At the end of the module, the learners will be System of Units

able to:
In mechanics we use four fundamental
1. Identify the language used in the atmosphere;
quantities called dimensions. These are length,
and
mass, force and time. The units used to
measure these quantities cannot all be chosen For gravitational acceleration, we will use the
following variables:
independently because they must be consistent
with Newton’s second law. The four
SI units: g= 9.81 m/s2
fundamental dimensions and their units and
symbols in the two systems are summarized U.S units: g=32.2 ft/sec2
below.
QUANTIT DIMENSIONA SI UNITS U.S CUSTOMARY
Y L UNITS

Unit conversions:
SYMBOL
UNITS SYMBO UNIT SYMBO
L L
Mass M Kilogram kg slug -
Length L Meter m foot ft
Time T Second s second sec
Force F Newton N pound lbf Take note of the following unit conversion, we
force
will use it from time to time.

Remember: Force:

9.81 N = 2.20 lbf

1 lbf = 4.45 N
32.2 lbf = 143.2 N

Mass:

1 kg = 2.20 lbm
1 lbm = 0.454 kg
1 slug = 14.594 kg
Analyzing the difference between SI and U.S
Customary units will ease the steps when
solving for a problem.

2. What is the weight of a 1 lbm mass at an

altitude where the local acceleration of gravity
is 32 ft/s²?
Mass and Weight
The term weight is often used with respect to a
body and is sometimes confused with mass. 
The mass of a body is the absolute quantity of
matter in it. 
The weight of a body means the force of
gravity   on the body. 3. A rocket of mass    accelerates
at    for 31 seconds from initial speed of
Sample Problem:
. What is the kinetic energy gained of
1. What is force required to accelerate a mass the rocket? 
of  60 lbm at a rate of 45 ft/s²?
 The specific volume of a substance is defined
as the volume per unit mass and is given the
symbol v. The density of a substance is defined
as the mass per unit volume, and it is therefore
the reciprocal of the specific volume. Density is
designated by the symbol ρ. Specific volume
and density are intensive properties.
The specific volume of a system in a
gravitational field may vary from point to point.
For example, if the atmosphere is considered a
system, the specific volume increases as the
elevation increases. Therefore, the definition of
specific volume involves the specific volume of
a substance at a point in a system.
In SI units, those for specific volume are 

for density the corresponding units are 

Specific volume and density

 The unit for pressure in the International
System is the force of one newton acting on a
In English units, those for specific volume are
square meter area, which is called the pascal
(Pa). That is

the corresponding units for density are 

Other reference for standard atmosphere: 

The density ρ of any substance is its mass (not

weight) per unit volume.  In fluids, gases and liquids, we speak of
pressure; in solids this is stress. For a fluid at
rest, the pressure at a given point is the same
The specific volume v is the volume of a unit in all directions.
mass.

Pressure
Pressure of a fluid at rest increases with depth
(due to added weight), but constant in
In thermodynamics calculations, always use
horizontal planes.
absolute pressure. Most pressure measuring
The actual pressure at a given position is called devices are calibrated to read zero in the
the absolute pressure, and it is measured atmosphere (they measure Pgauge or Pvac)
relative to absolute vacuum.   
    gauge pressure = absolute pressure ‐ A device that measures pressure using a
atmospheric pressure column of liquid is called a Manometer. The
cross-sectional area of the tube is not
important. The manometer measures the
gauge pressure
 Sample Problems: 

1. A mercury barometer located in a room at

25◦C has a height of 750 mm. What is the
atmospheric pressure in kPa?
Solution: 

Basic manometer, 

Barometer is a device that measures

atmospheric pressure. It is a manometer with a
near vacuum on one end.
2. A mercury (Hg) manometer is used to
measure the pressure in a vessel. The mercury
has a density of 13 590 kg/m3, and the height
difference between the two columns is
measured to be 24 cm. Determine the pressure
inside the vessel.
Solution:
The manometer measures the gauge pressure
as a pressure difference

Temperature
Temperature is a pointer for the direction of
energy transfer as heat.  

To get the absolute pressure inside the vessel,

We need to know the atmospheric pressure

measured by a barometer (absolute pressure).
Assume that this pressure is known to be 750
mm Hg. The absolute pressure in the vessel
becomes 0th Law of Thermodynamics: when two objects
are in thermal equilibrium with a third object,
they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
The 0th law makes a thermometer possible.

in accordance with the zeroth law, any system

 Absolute temperature is the temperature
that possesses an equation of state that relates
measured from absolute zero
T to other accurately measurable properties
 Absolute zero temperature is the temperature
can be used as a thermometer. 
at which all molecular motion ceases.
 Absolute temperature will be denoted by T,
thus 
 NOTE! R = F + 459.4

Sample Problems:

1. What is a temperature of –5°C in degrees

Kelvin?
Standard Atmosphere
The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is
2. The human comfort zone is between 18 and
an atmospheric model of how the pressure,
24°C. What is that range in Fahrenheit?
temperature, density, and viscosity of the
Earth’s atmosphere change over a wide range
of altitudes.
 It has been established to provide a common
reference for the atmosphere consider
standard (with an average solar activity and in
latitudes around 45N)
This model of atmosphere is the standard used
in aviation and weather studies.

Base on the figure above, the Gradient layer

will be from 0 km-11 km while for Isothermal
Layer will be from 11 km-25 km. Now, we will Hypotheses
only focus our attention to these layers since
the altitude (height) of commercial aircraft's are
The basic hypotheses of ISA are:
limited to these layers.
Tip: Commercial aircraft's when in steady level  Complies with the perfect gas equation
flight (notice the seat belt sign off during flight)
must reach above 29,000 ft. (height of Mt. where:
Everest) to avoid terrain accidents. Also, R = perfect gas constant for air
aircraft have its absolute ceiling (maximum
                [SI= 287 J/kg (K)) ; English = 1716
height that can be reached by an aircraft) to
ft·lbf/slug (R)]
avoid mid-air accident.
Generally, we will be using the chart in solving p = pressure
for different problems especially in subjects of ρ = density [SI = 1.2250 kg/m3; English =
Fundamentals of Aerodynamics, Subsonic, 0.002378 slug/ft3]
Supersonic and higher Engineering subjects
T = temperature [SI = °C/ °K ; English = °F/ °R]
(But for now, I will just introduce you on how to
use the chart with sample problems).  In the troposphere the temperature
gradient is constant or we also describe
this as the gradient layer
Troposphere (0 -11 km) (See figure above)
where: P0 = SI = 101325 Pa
T1 = 288.16 °K ; a= -6.5 x 10-3 K/m (lapse
English= 2116 lbf/ft2
rate) / -0.00355 R/ft
ρ 0 = SI = 1.2250 kg/m3
Gradient layer
English = 0.002378 slug/ft3

 The acceleration due to gravity is

constant (g= 9.81 m/s2 / 32.2 ft/sec2)
 The atmosphere is in calm with respect to
Where: Earth.
a=A
T1 = 288.16 °K
R = gas constant Sample Problem
G0 = gravitational acceleration at sea level
[SI - 9.81 m/s2 ; English: 32.2ft/sec2 ] 1.  At 12 km in standard atmosphere, the
pressure, density and temperature are 1.9399 x
 
104 N/m2, 3.1194 x 10-1 kg/m3 and 216.66 °K.
 The physical properties of air at sea level Calculate the standard atmosphere values of
(h=0); we denote that a unit subscript pressure, density and temperature at an
with 0 (ie p0) will be assumed as a altitude of 18 km.
property at sea level. Solution:
Given:
Properties at 12 km = h1
P =1.9399 x 104 N/m2
ρ = 3.1194 x 10-1 kg/m3
T= 216.66 °K 2. Calculate the weight of air (in pounds)
h = 18km contained in a room 20 ft. long, 15 ft. wide and
8 ft. high. Assume standard atmospheric
Base on the graph above, we can assume that
pressure and temperature of 2116 lb/ft2. And
18km is in the isothermal level/tropopause.
59°C, respectively.
With the given formula, solving this would be:
1. Pressure
Solution:
Given:   

2. Density
Equation of State

3. Temperature
 There are formulas that you will be the one to
formulate in your higher mathematics. (i.e
Fundamentals of Aerodynamics and higher
Engineering mathematics)

Temperature Altitude 

Barometric Altitude
Pressure Altitude 

In some cases, finding the altitude to each set

of properties must be solve in order to have an
equilibrium to the measurement of the
instruments of your aircraft.
Density Altitude
To solve these problems, there are equations
and formula that is needed to be derived and
formulated. The formula below had been
derived and formulated already for your
reference on the lecture.
Sample Problem
 Density altitude
An airplane flying at an altitude where actual
pressure and temperature are 4.72 x
104 N/m2 and 255.7 K. What is the pressure,
temperature and density?
Solution
Given

P=4.72 x 104 N/m2
T=255.7 K
Temperature altitude

Pressure altitude 
Module 6 Introduction to 1. Identify the language used in the
aerodynamics;
Aerodynamics 2. Distinguish the contributions of distinct
mathematicians in the world of mechanics; and
3. Grasp the science of flight in different
applications.

Module Introduction
The lesson in this module introduces to the
Generalities
basic foundation of Fundamentals of
Aerodynamics. Aerodynamics is the discipline The interest herein is centered in gases since
that studies the forces and the resulting motion the atmosphere in which operate is a gas
of objects in the air. Therefore, the basis of commonly known as air. Air is a viscous,
atmospheric flight is found on the study of compressible fluid composed mostly by
aerodynamics (a branch of fluid mechanics). nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%). Under some
conditions (for instance, at low flight velocities),
it can be considered incompressible.
Learning Objectives

At the end of the module, the learners will be

able to:
Gas fluid in an instant of time are referred to as
streamlines. Two streamlines cannot cross
A gas consists of a large number of molecules each other except in points with null velocity,
in random motion, each molecule having a otherwise will mean that one point has two
particular velocity, position, and energy, varying different velocities.
because of collisions between molecules. The
force per unit created on a surface by the time
rate of change of momentum of the rebounding
molecules is called the pressure. As long as
the molecules are sufficiently apart so that the
inter-molecular magnetic forces are negligible,
the gas acts as a continuous material in which
the properties are determined by a statistical
average of the particle effects. Such a gas is
called a perfect gas.

Stream line

The air as a continuous fluid flows under

determined patterns confined into a finite space
(the atmosphere). The curves tangent to the
velocity vector of the flow at each point of the
Stream tube

A stream tube is the locus2 (collection of points

that share a property) of the streamlines which Continuity Equation
pass through a closed curve in a given instant.
The stream tube can be thought as a pipe One of the fundamentals of physics stays that
inside the fluid, through its walls there is no the matter in the interior of an isolated system
flow. is not created nor destroyed; it is only
transformed. If one thinks in open systems (not
isolated), such as human beings or airplanes in
flight, its mass is constantly varying

In a fluid is not easy to identify particles or fluid

volumes since they are moving and deforming
constantly within time. That is way the
conservation of mass must be  understood in a
different way.
 confined in a room). Notice that one cannot say
that the air is incompressible, but an air flow is
incompressible.

The movement of air in which the velocity is

inferior to 100 [m/s] can be considered
incompressible. When the air moves faster, as
Recall the concept of stream tube. Assuming is the case in a jet airplane, the flow is
through its walls there is no flow, and that the compressible and the studies become more
flow is stationary across any section area (the complicated as it will be seen in posterior
velocity is constant), the mass that enters per courses.
unit of time in Section A1 (ρ1V1A1) will be equal
to the mass that exits Section A2 (ρ2V2A2), where
ρ is the density, V is the velocity, and A is the
area. Therefore, the continuity of mass stays:
Sample Problem
Compressible and incompressible flow
Consider a convergent duct w/an inlet area
In many occasions occurs that the density of a
A1=5 m2. Air enters this duct w/a velocity V1=10
fluid does not change due to the fact that it is
m/s and leaves the duct exit with a velocity
moving. This happens in liquids and, in some
V2=30 m/s. What is the area of the duct exit?
circumstances, in gases (think in the air
Solution:  understanding of aerodynamic flight. The two
basic aerodynamic problems are lift and drag.
Since V’s are less than 100 m/s, we can
The following had to be overcome before
assume that the flow is incompressible.
humans could fly.
V1A1=V2A2
 The resistance to motion
  Generation of lift

  Overcoming of drag

 Generation or an impulse
Historical Perspective (for space flight)
As airplane designers, we must consider how
Aeronautics is a relatively young engineering to support the aircraft's weight with air and how
discipline with most of its contributions being to overcome the resistance to motion. This is
made during the past 100 years, which differs accomplished by generating lift and
from philosophy, science, physics and overcoming drag.
chemistry that have been developed over the
centuries. The technological developments
The methods for generating lift are static or
necessary for heavier than air flight were
dynamic means, namely through buoyancy (i.e
unavailable until the 1900s including engine
static balloon) and fluid “air” motion (i.e
development, prosper understanding of
dynamic wing).
aerodynamics and control, experiment wind
tunnel testing and pilots savvy in the
Buoyancy Lift formulate the equation. (Note: I made the
equation simple to understand it fully)
Balloon Flight

Buoyancy is the easier method of generating

lift. One of the first examples of lift through
buoyancy is a hot-air balloon. The governing
principle of buoyancy lift is Archimedes’
principle.
This principle says that a difference in pressure Sample Problem
on the surface of a body is equal to the volume
displaced, and the therefore, lift for balloon A balloon weighing 80 kg has a capacity of
flight is governed by this principle. In other 1200 m3. If it is filled with helium, how great a
words, a difference in pressure on the surfaces payload can it support? The density of helium
of a body gives lift; or the weight of the fluid is 0.18 kg/ m3 and the density of air is 1.30 kg/
displaced equals the buoyant force. m3. Express your answer in newtons.
Given:
The easiest way to apply Archimedes’ principle M=80 kgV = 1200 m3{"version":"1.1","math":"<
to the subject of aerodynamics and flight is to
math
model our balloon as cylinder. Now we can
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi>M</
mi><mo>=</mo><mn>80</mn><mo>&#xA0;</
mo><mi>k</mi><mi>g</mi><mspace
c.   Determine the force required to lift the
linebreak="newline"></mspace><mi>V</mi><mo>&#xA0;
displace volume of 1200m3
</mo><mo>=</mo><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mn>1200</
mn><mo>&#xA0;</mo><msup><mi>m</mi><mn>3</
mn></msup><mspace Solution 2: 
linebreak="newline"></mspace></math>"}
Using the equation :

Solution 1: 

a.  Determine the total mass that can be lifted

by the helium balloon.

The total amount that can lifted (including

balloon, helium and payload)
b. Determine the mass that is displaced.
a. mass of helium
 atmospheric flight is found on the study of
aerodynamics (a branch of fluid mechanics).

Learning Objectives

At the end of the module, the learners will be

able to:

1. Identify the language used in the

Module 7 Lift aerodynamics;

2. Distinguish the contributions of distinct
mathematicians in the world of mechanics; and
3. Grasp the science of flight in different
applications.
Module Introduction
The lesson in this module introduces to the Lift from Fluid air motion
basic foundation of Fundamentals of
Aerodynamics. Aerodynamics is the discipline Airplane wing geometry is defined as one of the
that studies the forces and the resulting motion chief factors affecting airplane lift and drag.
of objects in the air. Therefore, the basis of
 Span, b 

The figure shows a simple wing geometry, as

viewed from above (top view). -distance from one wing tip to the other.

Leading edge  Planform

- the front of the wing. -the shape of the wing when viewed from
above looking down onto the wing.
Trailing edge
In the figure, the planform is rectangle and the
for-rectangle wing, the chord length at every
-the back view of the wing. location along the span is equal.

Chord, c Other wing planforms, the chord length varies

along the span.
-the distance from the leading to trailing edges. The total surface area S includes both upper
and lower surfaces.
Wing tips 

-the ends of the wing.

 on this parameter and higher AR give lower
drag and a better glide angle.

Low-aspect-ratio wings have either short spans

or thick chords (i.e Space Shuttle) they are
designed with low-AR due to high-speed
effects.

The aspect ratio (AR) of a wing is define to be

A cut through the wing perpendicular to the
the square of the span divided by the wing
leading and trailing edges show the cross
surface area and is written as: 
section of the wing.
This cross section is called an airfoil and it has
some geometric definitions of its own.
The aspect ratio is a measure of how long and
slender a wing is from tip to tip. For rectangular Chord line 
wing this reduces to the ratio of the span to the
chord length. cuts the airfoil into an upper surface and a
lower surface.
High-aspect-ratio wings have long spans (i.e
gliders) they are designed with high-aspect-
ratios because the drag of the aircraft depends
Mean camber Line
Airfoils come with all kinds of combinations of camber and
thickness distributions.
curve that lie halfway between the upper and
lower surfaces.
NACA (National Advisory Committee for
Camber  Aeronautics, the precursor of NASA)

the maximum distance between the two lines. -established a method of designating classes of
The measure of the curvature of the airfoil (high airfoils and then tested the airfoils in a wind
camber means high curvature). tunnel to provide lift coefficients and drag
coefficients for designers.
Thickness 

the maximum distance between upper and

lower surfaces is called the thickness.

Aerodynamic forces on a
wing
Lift is the force that hold an aircraft in the air.
How is lift generated? There are two accepted
descriptions, namely, Bernoulli and Newton
positions, which arise from the Bernoulli
equation and Newton’s second law.

Bernoulli’s equation

describes lift is generated by a pressure

difference across the wing.

Newton’s law The lift (and drag) of a given airfoil shape can
be complex to calculate due to the multiple
states that lift is the reaction force on a body factors involved, such as airfoil geometry, flow
caused by deflecting a flow of gas. A body speed, and flow type. Generally, all these
moving through a fluid generates a force by the parameters are lumped into an empirical non-
pressure variation around the body. dimensional parameter to make the evaluation
The dynamic wing is a lifting surface that of the lift and drag more coefficient. The non-
generates lift as a reaction to the airflow dimensional lift and drag terms are called the
passing over it. coefficient of lift and drag, respectively.
The lift coefficient is 
The drag coefficient is
Bernoulli’s equation defines as the flow speed
increases; the local pressure decreases vice
versa.

Dynamic Pressure equates 

Relation between Lift and
Angle of Attack
Bernoulli’s Equation
Lift, CL, Drag, CD, α and velocity are critical
parameters of airplane flight, and by looking at
relations between these parameters we can
The equation establishes a simple relationship understand how an airplane behaves in flight.
between the static pressure P, the specific flow Lift of an airplane increases as α increases until
a point called the stall angle. Stall is defined as
kinetic energy   , and reference conditions the point in dynamic flight when the wing is no
associated with where the flow came from.  longer attaining lift and thus the airplane starts
falling under its weight.

Where
 is a constant for the entire flow and is usually
called the stagnation pressure, or sometimes
called the total pressure.
 Where:
 = density
V = velocity
R = distance from the leading edge of the airfoil
 = viscosity of the flow = 1.7894 x 10-
5
 kg/m(s) / 3.7373 x 10-7 slug/ ft(s)
 

Sample Problem
Given two wings, one full size (S = 5 m2) and
one scale model (S =0.2 m2), each with
different airspeed and air density, compare the
  lift of each.

Specifically, the CD versus α plot depends on

another dimensionless parameter defined as
the Reynolds number R.N
 velocity and density are 2116 lbf/ft2, 100 mi/hr,
0.002378 slug/ft3, respectively. At a given point
A on the airfoil, the pressure is 2070lbf/ft2. What
is the velocity at point A?
Given:
Full size wing

Model wing

Solution: 

The model airfoil has a larger      and

therefore a higher relative lift. This shows that it
is more efficient at the given conditions.

Sample Problem #2
Consider an airfoil in a flow of air where far
ahead (upstream) of the airfoil, the pressure,
Sample Solutions