Heat Transfer Operations
Unit 1
Conduction
Objectives
2
• Understand how thermodynamics and heat transfer are related
to each other
• Distinguish thermal energy from other forms of energy, and heat
transfer from other forms of energy transfer
• Perform general energy balances as well as surface energy
balances
• Understand the basic mechanisms of heat transfer, which are
conduction, convection, and radiation, and Fourier's law of heat
conduction, Newton's law of cooling, and the Stefan–Boltzmann
law of radiation
• Identify the mechanisms of heat transfer that occur
simultaneously in practice
• Develop an awareness of the cost associated with heat losses
• Solve various heat transfer problems encountered in practice
THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER
3
• Heat: The form of energy that can be transferred from one
system to another as a result of temperature difference.
• Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat
transfer as a system undergoes a process from one
equilibrium state to another.
• Heat Transfer deals with the determination of the rates of
such energy transfers as well as variation of temperature.
• The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-
temperature medium to the lower-temperature one.
• Heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same
temperature.
• Heat can be transferred in three different modes:
conduction, convection, radiation
4
Application Areas of Heat Transfer
5
5
Historical Background Kinetic theory: Treats molecules as
6 tiny balls that are in motion and thus
possess kinetic energy.
Heat: The energy associated with the
random motion of atoms and
molecules.
Caloric theory: Heat is a fluidlike
substance called the caloric that is a
massless, colorless, odorless, and
tasteless substance that can be
poured from one body into another
It was only in the middle of the
nineteenth century that we had a true
physical understanding of the nature
of heat.
Careful experiments of the
Englishman James P. Joule published
in 1843 convinced the skeptics that
heat was not a substance after all, and
thus put the caloric theory to rest.
ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER
7
Heat transfer equipment such as heat exchangers, boilers, condensers, radiators,
heaters, furnaces, refrigerators, and solar collectors are designed primarily on the
basis of heat transfer analysis.
The heat transfer problems encountered in practice can be considered in two
groups: (1) rating and (2) sizing problems.
The rating problems deal with the determination of the heat transfer rate for an
existing system at a specified temperature difference.
The sizing problems deal with the determination of the size of a system in order to
transfer heat at a specified rate for a specified temperature difference.
An engineering device or process can be studied either experimentally (testing and
taking measurements) or analytically (by analysis or calculations).
The experimental approach has the advantage that we deal with the actual physical
system, and the desired quantity is determined by measurement, within the limits of
experimental error. However, this approach is expensive, time consuming, and often
impractical.
The analytical approach (including the numerical approach) has the advantage that it
is fast and inexpensive, but the results obtained are subject to the accuracy of the
assumptions, approximations, and idealizations made in the analysis.
Specific Heats of Gases, Liquids, and Solids
8
Specific heat: The energy required to
raise the temperature of a unit mass of
a substance by one degree.
Two kinds of specific heats:
specific heat at constant volume cv
specific heat at constant pressure
cp
The specific heats of a substance, in
general, depend on two independent
properties such as temperature and
pressure.
At low pressures all real gases
approach ideal gas behavior, and
therefore their specific heats depend
on temperature only.
9
Incompressible substance: A
substance whose specific volume
(or density) does not change with
temperature or pressure.
The constant-volume and
constant-pressure specific heats
are identical for incompressible
substances.
The specific heats of
incompressible substances
depend on temperature only.
Energy Transfer
Energy
10 can be transferred to or from a given
mass by two mechanisms: when is constant:
heat transfer and work.
Heat transfer rate: The amount of heat
transferred per unit time.
Heat flux: The rate of heat transfer per unit
area normal to the direction of heat transfer.
Power: The work
done per unit time.
Q. A 10-cm-diameter copper ball is to be
heated from 100° C to an average
temperature of 150°C in 30 min. Taking
the average11 density and specific heat of
copper in this temperature range to be
ρ = 8950 kg/ m3 and CP = 0.395 kJ/kg⋅° C,
respectively, determine (a) the total
amount of heat transfer to the copper ball,
(b) The average rate of heat transfer to the
ball, and (c) the average heat flux.
A heated continuous AISI 304 stainless steel sheet is being conveyed at a constant speed
of 1 cm/s into a chamber to be cooled (Fig. 1–20). The stainless steel sheet is 5 mm
thick
12 and 2 m wide, and it enters and exits the chamber at 500 K and 300 K, respectively.
Determine the rate of heat loss from the stainless steel sheet inside the chamber.
Energy Balance for Closed Systems (Fixed Mass)
13
A closed system consists of a fixed mass.
The total energy E for most systems
encountered in practice consists of the
internal energy U.
This is especially the case for stationary
systems since they don’t involve any
changes in their velocity or elevation during
a process.
Energy Balance for
Steady-Flow
14
Systems
A large number of engineering devices such as
water heaters and car radiators involve mass flow
in and out of a system, and are modeled as
control volumes.
Most control volumes are analyzed under steady
operating conditions.
The term steady means no change with time at a
specified location.
Mass flow rate: The amount of mass flowing
through a cross section of a flow device per unit
time.
Volume flow rate: The volume of a fluid flowing
through a pipe or duct per unit time.
HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS
15
Heat as the form of energy that can be transferred from one
system to another as a result of temperature difference.
A thermodynamic analysis is concerned with the amount of
heat transfer as a system undergoes a process from one
equilibrium state to another.
The science that deals with the determination of the rates of
such energy transfers is the heat transfer.
The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-
temperature medium to the lower-temperature one, and heat
transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same
temperature.
Heat can be transferred in three basic modes:
conduction
convection
radiation
All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a
temperature difference.
CONDUCTION
Conduction: The transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a
substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions
between the particles.
Or
Conduction heat transfer is an atomic or molecular process. It occurs in the
presence of a emperature difference and is not accompanied by any
macroscopic or bulk motion in the medium. Conduction is the only mode of
heat transfer in a solid medium.
In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion of the
molecules during their random motion.
In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in a
lattice and the energy transport by free electrons.
The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is proportional to the
temperature difference across the layer and the heat transfer area, but is
inversely proportional to the thickness of the layer.
Heat conduction
through a large plane
wall of thickness x
and area A.
16
When x → 0 Fourier’s law of heat
conduction
17
Thermal conductivity, k: A measure of the ability of a
material to conduct heat.
Temperature gradient dT/dx: The slope of the
temperature curve on a T-x diagram.
Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing
temperature, and the temperature gradient becomes
negative when temperature decreases with
increasing x. The negative sign in the equation
ensures that heat transfer in the positive x direction
is a positive quantity.
In heat conduction
analysis, A represents The rate of heat conduction
the area normal to the through a solid is directly
direction of heat proportional to its thermal
transfer. conductivity.
Thermal
Conductivity
18
Thermal conductivity:
The rate of heat transfer
through a unit thickness
of the material per unit
area per unit
temperature difference.
The thermal conductivity
of a material is a
measure of the ability of
the material to conduct
heat.
A high value for thermal
conductivity indicates A simple experimental setup
that the material is a to determine the thermal
good heat conductor, conductivity of a material.
and a low value indicates
that the material is a
poor heat conductor or
insulator.
19
The range of
thermal
conductivity of
various
materials at
room
temperature.
The thermal conductivities of gases such
as air vary by a factor of 104 from those
20 of pure metals such as copper.
Pure crystals and metals have the
highest thermal conductivities, and gases
and insulating materials the lowest.
The mechanisms of heat
conduction in different
phases of a substance.
21
The variation of
the thermal
conductivity of
various solids,
liquids, and gases
with temperature.
Thermal Diffusivity
cp Specific
22 heat, J/kg · °C: Heat capacity per
unit mass
cp Heat capacity, J/m3·°C: Heat capacity
per unit volume
Thermal diffusivity, m2/s: Represents how
fast heat diffuses through a material
A material that has a high thermal
conductivity or a low heat capacity will
obviously have a large thermal diffusivity.
The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster
the propagation of heat into the medium.
A small value of thermal diffusivity means
that heat is mostly absorbed by the
material and a small amount of heat is
conducted further.
CONVECTION
23
Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent
liquid or gas that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction
and fluid motion.
Convection means the transport of heat energy by way of displacement of
fluid elements from one point to another point which is at a different temperature.
Convection may be of two types, forced convection and free or natural convection.
Forced convection occurs when motion in the medium is caused by an external
mechanical agency such as a pump, a blower, an agitator, etc. or by an externally
imposed pressure gradient.
Free or natural convection occurs when motion in the medium is created by an adverse
density gradient, as a result of temperature difference. This happens if the temperature
of a fluid at a lower level becomes higher than that at an upper level.
Newton’s law of cooling
h 24
convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 · °C
As the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place
Ts the surface temperature
T the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface.
The convection heat transfer
coefficient h is not a property
of the fluid.
It is an experimentally
determined parameter
whose value depends on all
the variables influencing
convection such as
- the surface geometry
- the nature of fluid motion
- the properties of the fluid
- the bulk fluid velocity
RADIATION
25
• Radiation: The energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic
waves (or photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic
configurations of the atoms or molecules.
Stefan–Boltzmann law
= 5.670 10−8 W/m2 · K4 Stefan–Boltzmann constant
Emissivity : A measure of how closely a surface approximates a
blackbody for which = 1 of the surface. 0 1.
A 5-m-long section of an air heating system of a house passes through an unheated space in the basement (Fig. 1–
21). The cross section of the rectangular duct of the heating system is 20 cm × 25 cm. Hot air enters the duct at
100 kPa and 60° C at an average velocity of 5 m/s. The temperature of the air in the duct drops to 54° C as a
result of heat loss to the cool space in the basement. Determine the rate of heat loss from the air in the duct to the
26
basement under steady conditions. Also, determine the cost of this heat loss per hour if the house is heated by a
natural gas furnace
that has an efficiency of 80 percent and the cost of the natural gas in that area is $1.60/therm (1 therm = 100,000
Btu = 105,500 kJ).
27
1-D steady conduction through plane wall
28 Consider a thin element of thickness Δx in a large
plane wall, as shown in Fig. 2–12. Assume the
density of the wall is ρ, the specific heat is c, and the
area of the wall normal to the direction of heat
transfer is A. An energy balance on this thin element
during a small time interval Δt can be expressed as
Thermal Resistance
29
Thermal resistance of the wall against heat conduction or simply the
conduction resistance of the wall. Note that the thermal resistance of a
medium depends on the geometry and the thermal properties of the
medium.
Thermal Resistance in Composite wall
30
EXAMPLE 3–3 Heat Loss Through Double-Pane Windows
Consider a 0.8-m-high and 1.5-m-wide double-pane window consisting of two 4-mm-thick layers of glass
(k = 0.78 W/m⋅K) separated by a 10-mm-wide stagnant airspace (k = 0.026 W/m⋅K). Determine the
31 steady rate of heat transfer through this double-pane window and the temperature of its inner surface for a
day during which the room is maintained at 20°C while the temperature of the outdoors is −10° C.
Take the convection heat transfer coefficients on the inner and outer surfaces of the window to be h 1 = 10
W/ m 2⋅K and h 2 = 40 W/ m 2⋅K, which includes the effects of radiation.
THERMAL CONTACT RESISTANCE
32
When two such surfaces are pressed against each other, the peaks form
good material contact but the valleys form voids filled with air in most cases.
As a result, an interface contains numerous air gaps of varying sizes that
act as insulation because of the low thermal conductivity of air. Thus, an
interface offers some resistance to heat transfer, and this resistance for a unit
interface area is called the thermal contact resistance, Rc . The value of Rc is
determined experimentally using a setup like the one shown in Fig. 3–15,
Thermal contact conductance of some metal surfaces in air (from various sources)
33
34
3.4 The thermal contact conductance at the interface of two 1-cm-thick copper plates is measured to be 18,000
W/ m2K. Determine the thickness of the copper plate whose thermal resistance is equal to the thermal resistance
of the interface between the plates (Fig. 3–17). Properties The thermal conductivity of copper at room
temperature is k=401 W/m⋅K
EXAMPLE 3–5 Contact Resistance of Transistors
Four identical power transistors with aluminum casing are attached
on one side of a 1-cm-thick 20-cm × 20-cm square copper plate (k =
386 W/m⋅K) by screws that exert an average pressure of 6 MPa
(Fig. 3–18). The base area of each transistor is 8 cm2 , and each
transistor is placed at the centre of a 10-cm × 10-cm quarter section
of the plate. The interface roughness is estimated to be about 1.5
μm. All transistors are covered by a thick Plexiglas layer, which is a
poor conductor of heat, and thus all the heat generated at the
junction of the transistor must be dissipated to the ambient at 20° C
through the back surface of the copper plate. The combined
convection/radiation heat transfer coefficient at the back surface can
be taken to be 25 W/ m 2 ⋅K. If the case temperature of the transistor
is not to exceed 70° C, determine
the maximum power each transistor can dissipate safely and the
temperature jump at the case/plate interface.
35
HEAT CONDUCTION IN CYLINDERS
AND SPHERE
36
In steady operation, there is no change in the temperature of the pipe with
time at any point. Therefore, the rate of heat transfer into the pipe must be
equal to the rate of heat transfer out of it. In other words, heat transfer
through the pipe must be constant.
Consider a long cylindrical layer (such as a circular pipe) of inner radius
r1 , outer radius r 2 , length L, and average thermal conductivity k (Fig. 3–
24).
The two surfaces of the cylindrical layer are maintained at constant
temperatures T 1 and T 2 .
There is no heat generation in the layer, and the thermal conductivity is
constant.
For one-dimensional heat conduction through the cylindrical
layer, we have T(r).
Then Fourier’s law of heat conduction for heat transfer through the
cylindrical layer can be expressed as
HEAT CONDUCTION IN COMPOSITE CYLINDER AND SPHERE
37
38
hrad = 5.34 W/m2.K
Latent heat of fusion of ice= 333.7 kJ/kg
39
40
CRITICAL RADIUS OF INSULATION
• We know that adding more insulation to a wall or to the attic always decreases heat transfer. The
thicker the insulation, the lower the heat transfer rate. This is expected, since the heat transfer area
41
A is constant, and adding insulation always increases the thermal resistance of the wall without
increasing the convection resistance.
• Adding insulation to a cylindrical pipe or a spherical shell, however, is a different matter. The
additional insulation increases the conduction resistance of the insulation layer but decreases the
convection resistance of the surface because of the increase in the outer surface area for convection.
The heat transfer from the pipe may increase or decrease, depending on which effect dominates.
42
The thermal conductivity of plastic is
given to be k = 0.15 W/m⋅K
T R A N S I E N T H E AT C O N D U C T I O N
43
• The temperature of a body, in general, varies with time as well as position. In
rectangular coordinates, this variation is expressed as T(x, y, z, t), where (x, y, z)
indicate variation in the x-, y-, and z-directions, and t indicates variation with time.
• In the preceding topics, we considered heat conduction under steady conditions, for
which the temperature of a body at any point does not change with time. This
certainly simplified the analysis, especially when the temperature varied in one
direction only, and we were able to obtain analytical solutions.
• Now, we consider the variation of temperature with time as well as position in one
and multidimensional systems.
• We start this topic with the analysis of lumped systems in which the temperature of
a body varies with time but remains uniform throughout at any time.
• Then we consider the variation of temperature with time as well as position for
one-dimensional heat conduction problems such as those associated with a large
plane wall, a long cylinder, a sphere, and a semi-infinite medium using analytical
solutions. This type of conduction is called transient heat conduction.
44
There are two observations that can be made from this figure and the relation above:
1. Equation 4–4 enables us to determine the temperature T(t) of a body at time t, or alternatively, the
time t required for the temperature to reach a specified value T(t).
2. The temperature of a body approaches the ambient temperature T∞ exponentially. The temperature
of the body changes rapidly at the beginning, but rather slowly later on. A large value of b indicates
that the body approaches the environment temperature in a short time. The larger the value of the
exponent b, the higher the rate of decay in temperature. Note that b is proportional to the surface area
but inversely proportional to the mass and the specific heat of the body. This is not surprising since it
takes longer to heat or cool a larger mass, especially when it has a large specific heat.
45
46
47
TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION IN LARGE PLANE WALLS,
LONG CYLINDERS, AND SPHERES WITH SPATIAL EFFECTS
•
48
In previous sections, we considered bodies in which the variation of temperature within the body is
negligible; that is, bodies that remain nearly isothermal during a process. Relatively small bodies of
highly conductive materials approximate this behaviour.
• In general, however, the temperature within a body changes from point to point as well as with time.
In this section, we consider the variation of temperature with time and position in one-dimensional
problems such as those associated with a large plane wall, a long cylinder, and a sphere.
Consider a plane wall of thickness 2L, a long cylinder of radius ro , and a sphere of radius ro initially at a
uniform temperature Ti . At time t = 0, each geometry is placed in a large medium that is at a constant
temperature T ∞ and kept in that medium for t > 0. Heat transfer takes place between these bodies and
their environments by convection with a uniform and constant heat transfer coefficient h. Note that all three
cases possess geo- metric and thermal symmetry: the plane wall is symmetric about its centre plane (x =
0), the cylinder is symmetric about its centre line (r = 0), and the sphere is symmetric about its centre point
(r = 0). We neglect radiation heat transfer between these bodies and their surrounding surfaces, or we
incorporate the radiation effect into the convection heat transfer coefficient h.
Nondimensionalized One-Dimensional Transient Conduction
Problem
Consider a plane wall of thickness 2L initially at a uniform temperature of Ti , as shown in
49
previous slide. At time t = 0, the wall is immersed in a fluid at temperature T∞ and is
subjected to convection heat transfer from both sides with a convection coefficient of h. The
height and the width of the wall are large relative to its thickness, and thus heat conduction
in the wall can be approximated to be one-dimensional.
Also, there is thermal symmetry about the midplane passing through x = 0, and thus the
temperature distribution must be symmetrical about the midplane. Therefore, the value of
temperature at any −x value iin −L ≤ x ≤ 0 at any time t must be equal to the value at +x in 0
≤ x ≤ L at the same time. This means we can formulate and solve the heat conduction
problem in the positive half domain 0 ≤ x ≤ L, and then apply the solution to the other half.
50
51
Approximate Analytical Solutions
The dimensionless quantities defined above for a plane wall can also be used for a cylinder or sphere
52
by replacing the space variable x with r and the half-thickness L with the outer radius ro . Note that
the characteristic length in the definition of the Biot number is taken to be the half-thickness L for
the plane wall and the radius ro for the long cylinder and sphere instead of V/A used in lumped
system analysis.
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54
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56
57
58
59
TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION IN SEMI-INFINITE SOLIDS
60
