INTRODUCTION TO HEAT

TRANSFER

Assoc.Prof.Dr.Nalan Erdöl Aydın

Istanbul Technical University

Department of Chemical Engineering
 Textbook
Heat and Mass Transfer –
Fundamentals and Applications
by
Yunus A. Çengel and Afshin J.Ghajar

McGraw-Hill, NY, 2015

 CHAPTER 1

Basic Concepts of
Thermodynamics and
Heat Transfer
 What is going on?

➢ What do you feel when you enter a

warm classroom?
➢ What happens to a cold canned drink
or a hot cup of coffee left in a room?
➢ What do you feel when you jump into
cold sea (from a hot beach)?
➢ Why do put on more clothing on a
cold day?

Heat transfer
 What is Heat Transfer ?

Heat :
It is the form of energy that can be transferred from
one system to another as a result of temperature
difference.

Heat Transfer :

It is the science that deals with the determination of

the rates of such energy transfers.
 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
They are called thermal sciences

What is the difference?

Thermodynamics :

It concerns with the amount of heat transfer

(between equilibrium states).

➢ Time independent
➢ Equilibrium phenomenon
Heat Transfer :

It deals with the rate of heat transfer.

➢ Time dependent processes

➢ Non-equilibrium phenomenon
➢ Driving force: temperature difference
➢ Thermodynamic principles alone are not
enough for heat transfer analysis
 The Difference between
Heat Transfer & Thermodynamics

How long will it take to cool the coffee in a thermos

bottle from 90oC to 70oC?

Which one, heat transfer or thermodynamics, can

answer this question?

Heat transfer can calculate the time needed

Some application areas of heat transfer
 Heat and Other Forms of Energy

Forms of Energy :

➢ Thermal ➢ Mechanical
➢ Kinetic ➢ Potential
➢ Electrical ➢ Magnetic
➢ Chemical ➢ Nuclear

Total Energy of a System (E) =  all energies

• Internal energy may be viewed as the sum of the
kinetic and potential energies of the molecules.

• The kinetic energy of the molecules is called sensible

heat.

• The internal energy associated with the phase of a

system is called latent heat.

• The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds

in a molecule is called chemical (or bond) energy.

• The internal energy associated with the bonds within

the nucleus of the atom itself is called nuclear
energy.
 Internal Energy and Enthalpy

• In the analysis of systems

that involve fluid flow, we
frequently encounter the
combination of properties u
and Pv.

• The combination is defined

as enthalpy (h=u+Pv).

• The term Pv represents the

flow energy of the fluid (also
called the flow work).
 Specific Heats of Gases, Liquids and Solids

Specific heat:

Energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass

of substance by one degree (denoted by C).
In thermodynamics, there are two kinds of specifics
heats:
1. Specific heat at constant volume (Cv)
2. Specific heat at constant pressure (Cp)
Units: kJ/kg.C or kJ/kg.K

For ideal gases: Cp= Cv + R

Changes in the internal energy (u) and enthalpy (h) of
ideal gases :

Differential :

du = C V dT and dh = CPdT

Finite :

u = C V ,ave T and h = CP,ave T (J/kg)

U = mC V ,ave T and H = mC P,ave T (J)

m = mass of the system (kg)

C ave = the average specific heat (kJ/kg o C)
 Incompressible substance:

A substance whose specific volume (or density) does

not change with temperature & pressure

➢ Volume (density)  f (T, P)  CP = C V = C

➢ Specific heat depends on temperature only

Therefore, for solids and liquids :

U = mC ave T
 Energy Transfer
Energy can be transferred to or from a given mass by
two mechanisms:

➢ Heat (Q)
➢ Work (W)

Heat transfer:
Driving force is temperature difference (T ).

Q  T  Q, T or Q, T 

Heat transfer rate:

The amount of heat transferred per unit time (J/s)
The total amount of heat transferred during time
interval dt is:
t •
Q= 
0
Q dt (J)
•
Q = the rate of heat transfer (J/s)
• •
If Q is constant: Q = Q t (J)
Heat Flux (q): The rate of
heat transfer per unit area
per unit time
Q
q= (J / m2 s)
A
A = area normal to
when Q is uniform over the direction of HT

the area A.
 The First Law of Thermodynamics
• The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can
neither be created nor destroyed during a process; it can only
change forms.

• The energy balance for any system undergoing any process

can be expressed as (in the rate form)
• In heat transfer problems it is convenient
to write a heat balance and to treat the
conversion of nuclear, chemical,
mechanical, and electrical energies into
thermal energy as heat generation.
• The energy balance in that case can be
expressed as
 Energy Balance
Closed systems Steady-Flow Systems
• Stationary closed When kinetic and potential
system, no work: energies are negligible,
and there is no work
interaction
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Heat can be transferred in three basic
modes:
– conduction,
– convection,
– radiation.
• All modes of heat
transfer require the
existence of a temperature difference.
• All modes are from the high-temperature medium
to a lower-temperature one.
 CONDUCTION
• Conduction: the transfer of heat
from one part of a material to
another part of the same material, or
from one material to another in
physical contact with it, without any
appreciable displacement of the
molecules.

The rate of heat conduction through a

medium depends on:
• the geometry of the medium
• the thickness
• the material of the medium
• the temperature difference across
the medium.
The rate of heat conduction through a
plane layer is proportional to the
temperature difference across the layer
and the heat transfer area, but is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the layer.

or

where the constant of proportionality k

is the thermal conductivity of the
material, which is a measure of the
ability of a material to conduct heat
In the limiting case of reduces to

which is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction

after J. Fourier, who expressed it first in his heat
transfer text in 1822.
Here, dT/dx is the temperature gradient, which
is the slope of the temperature curve on a T-x
diagram at location x.

The negative sign in the above equation ensures that heat transfer
in the positive x direction is a positive quantity.
 Thermal Conductivity
Thermal Conductivity: a measure of a solid material to conduct heat
(the rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness of the material per unit
area per unit temperature difference.
 Thermal Diffusivity

Heat Capacity of a Material: the product ρCp which is frequently

encountered in heat transfer analysis.

Thermal Diffusivity: another material property that appears in

the transient heat conduction analysis, representing how fast
heat diffuses through a material.

k represents how well a material conducts heat, and the heat

capacity ρCp represents how much energy a material stores per unit
volume.

The thermal diffusivity of a material can be viewed as the ratio of the

heat conducted through the material to the heat stored per unit
volume.
 CONVECTION
Convection: the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and
the adjacent, moving liquid or gas (involving the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion).

Forced Convection: where the fluid is forced to flow over the surface
by external means such as a fan, pump, or the wind.

Natural (or Free) Convection: where the fluid motion is caused by

buoyancy forces that are induced by density differences due to the
variation of temperature in the fluid.
The rate of convection heat transfer is observed to be
proportional to the temperature difference, and is conveniently
expressed by Newton’s law of cooling as

h : Convection heat
transfer coefficient in
W/m2°C
As : Surface area through
which convection heat
transfer takes place
Ts : Surface temperature
T : Temperature of the
fluid sufficiently far from
the surface
 RADIATION

Radiation: the energy emitted by matter in the form of

electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result of the changes in the
electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.

Thermal Radiation: the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of

their temperature.

Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and

gases emit, absorb, or transmit radiation to varying degrees.

Radiation is usually considered to be a surface phenomenon for solids

that are opaque to thermal radiation such as metals, wood, and rocks
since the radiation emitted by the interior regions of such material
can never reach the surface, and the radiation incident on such bodies
is usually absorbed within a few microns from the surface.
The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted
from a surface at an absolute temperature Ts (in K or
R) is given by the Stefan–Boltzmann law as

σ : The Stefan–Boltzmann constant (5.66910-8

W/m2·K4)

Blackbody: the idealized surface that emits radiation at

this maximum rate.

Blackbody Radiation:
the radiation emitted by
a blackbody.
The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the radiation
emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature, and is expressed as

where is the emissivity of the

surface.
Emissivity: a measure of how closely a
surface approximates a blackbody for
which . Its value is in the range
.

Absorptivity (α): the fraction of the

radiation energy incident on a surface
that is absorbed by the surface.

A blackbody absorbs the entire

radiation incident on it and is a perfect
absorber (α= 1) as it is a perfect
emitter.
Kirchhoff’s Law of Radiation:
the emissivity and the
absorptivity of a surface at a
given temperature and
wavelength are equal.

where is the rate at which

radiation is incident on the surface
and a is the absorptivity of the surface.

The net rate of radiation heat

transfer between two surfaces:
Combined Heat Transfer Coefficient (hcombined): including the
effects of both convection and radiation.

The total heat transfer rate to or from a surface by convection

and radiation:

Radiation is usually significant relative to conduction or natural

convection, but negligible relative to forced convection. Thus
radiation in forced convection applications is usually
disregarded, especially when the surfaces involved have low
emissivities and low to moderate temperatures.
 SIMULTANEOUS HEAT TRANSFER
MECHANISMS

• Heat transfer is only by conduction in opaque

solids, but by conduction and radiation in
semitransparent solids.

• In the absence of radiation, heat transfer

through a fluid is either by conduction or
convection, depending on the presence of any bulk
fluid motion.

Convection can be viewed as combined

conduction and fluid motion, and conduction in a
fluid can be viewed as a special case of convection
in the absence of any fluid motion.

• Heat transfer through a vacuum is by radiation

only since conduction or convection requires the
presence of a material medium.