LEARNING

INTRODUCTION:

One of the most important characteristics of human beings is their capacity to learn.
An individual starts learning immediately after his birth or in a strict sense even earlier
in the womb of the mother. Our personality, our habits, skills, knowledge, attitudes,
interests and character is largely in the result of learning. It is the key process in
human behaviour. All our adaptive and maladaptive, our cognitive as well as affective
behaviour are formed by learning processes. These are of vital importance in helping
the individual to adapt to his changing environment.

DEFINITION:
According to Gardner Murphy,

“The term learning covers every modification in behaviour to meet environment

requirements”.
According to Crow & Crow,
“Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes. It involves new ways
of doing things and it operates on an individual’s attempts to overcome obstacles or to
adjust to new situations. It represents progressive changes in behaviour. It enables
him to satisfy interests to attain a goal”.
According to Morgan,

“Learning is some modification in the behaviour of the organism as a result of

experience which is retained for at least a certain period of time”.

NATURE OF LEARNING:

 Learning is a process and not a product.

 It involves all those experiences and training of an individual, which helps him
to produce change in his behaviour.
 Learning brings changes in the behaviour.
 Learning prepares an individual for the necessary adjustment and adaptation.
 All learning is purposeful and goal oriented.
 The scope of learning is too wide to explain in words.
 Learning is universal and continuous.
 Learning is transferable from one situation to another.
 Learning helps in the proper growth and development.
 Learning helps in the balanced development of personality.
TYPES OF LEARNING:

The individual is constantly interacting with and influenced by the environment. This
experience makes him to change or modify his behaviour in order to deal effectively
with it. All learning involves activities which may either be physical or mental. What
activities are learned by the individual refer to types of learning. These include;

1. Stimulus Response Learning: Conditioning learning involves the conditioning

of respondent behaviour through a process of stimulus association and
substitution. In this learning establishment of connections between sensory
system and motor systems will occur.

 Classical Conditioning: Association between two stimuli, e.g.

Unconditioned Stimulus [US] and Conditioned Stimulus [CS].
 Instrumental Conditioning [Operant Conditioning]: Association
between a response and a stimulus; allows an organism to adjust its
behaviour according to the consequences of that behaviour.
Exp: Reinforcement [Positive, Negative] and punishment.

2. Perception Learning: Sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch are considered as
the five gateway of knowledge. All knowledge is based on sense perception.
The individual receives information from sense organs and interprets them in
the light of previous experience. The attaching of meaning to sensation is called
perception. This perception is the foundation of all higher forms of learning.

3. Verbal Learning: All learning taking place in formal education is verbal

learning. Learning of this type helps in the acquisition of verbal behaviour. The
language we speak; communication devices we use are the result of such
learning. Exp: Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds and voices are
the essential instruments in the process of verbal learning.

4. Motor Learning: When learning involves primarily the use of muscles, it is

called motor learning. In this type the individual acquires new muscular co-
ordinations as a mode of response to a similar situation. Exp: Learning to walk,
swim, play throw ball, playing piano.

5. Concept Learning: A concept is the form of a mental image that denotes a

generalized idea about things, persons or events. This learning implies that the
individual starts thinking in abstract terms. He understands about the object
without its concrete form. These abstract concepts gradually multiply and
become a part of the mental makeup.
6. The formation of such concepts on account of previous experience, training is
called concept learning. Concept learning proves very useful in recognizing,
naming and identifying things. Once a concept is formed, an individual
manipulates it, in language and thinking.

7. Problem-solving Learning: It is a higher type of learning. This learning

requires the use of cognitive abilities like thinking, reasoning, generalization,
imagination, etc.

8. Attitude Learning: Much of our learning is based on attitudes. Because of

formation of attitudes we show favourable or unfavourable responses to various
objects, persons or situations. The individual learns a subject based on his
attitudes towards the subject.

9. Paired-associate Learning: In paired-associate learning tasks are presented in

such a way that they may be learned by reason of their associations. Much of the
verbal or motor learning may be acquired by means of the technique of paired or
multiple association.

[Link] Types of Learning:

Visual Auditory
Movies & videos Read aloud, text to
Pictures,Maps, Charts, speech, Debates, Formal
Graphs, Field trip, & Informal discussions,
Computer software, Lectures and Speeches,
Dramatizations, Books on tape, Plays,
Experiments Music & Songs

Kinesthetic
Games, Models & Tactile
diagrams, Math Arts & craft, Clay
manipulatives, Computer modeling, Gardening,
software, Art & crafts, Dress-up, Sewing
Hands on practice,
Experiments, field trips
LAWS / PROCESS OF LEARNING:

Psychologists have identified several principles of learning also referred to as laws of

learning, which are generally applicable to the learning process. These principles have
been discovered, tested and used in practical situations. They provide additional
insight into what makes people learn most effectively. the various laws of learning are
as follows;
i. Law of Readiness: Learning take place best when a person is ready to learn.
Some sort of preparatory attitude or a mind-set is necessary. If nervous
pathway is ready for action the response quickly follows. Learner’s reaction
depends upon the readiness of the sensory and motor neurons.

ii. Law of Effect: A successful reaction gives satisfaction to the individual and
the same reaction tend to be repeated. Pleasure and pain have their effects on
learning reactions.

iii. Law of Exercise / Use: Native relations are strengthened by practice. The use
of any response strengthens it and makes it more prompt, easy and certain.

iv. Law of Frequency: The low of frequency is correlated to law of use. If one
response strengthens the situation-response connection, two responses will
strengthen it further, three still further and so on. The more frequently a
connection is exercised the stronger the connection becomes.

v. Law of Disuse: Any learning process which is not practiced for some time
gradually decays. Use strengthens a situation-response connection. Disuse
weakens the connection.

vi. Law of Recency: The law of recency is correlated to law of disuse. The more
recent is the exercise, the stronger is the connection between the situation
and the response.

vii. Law of Primacy: The first experiences and acts are novel and apt to attract
attention. They are readily impressed in the mind. The first day at school etc.

viii. Law of Purpose: With a clear or definite goal in mind, the student works
towards a definite purpose.

ix. Law of Association: It is on the basis of association of ideas we can explain

now one idea gives way to the other and so on. When we recall a name, we
at once remember about its association, for Exp: When we say Taj Mahal,
we recall it is made of marble because these ideas are closely associated with
one another.
METHODS OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING

The method adopted any the learner is also important in determining his/her learning
skills. A student / child can be guided to select any methods of learning;

Whole to Part Method

This method is based on the principle of Gestalt theory. Any material with a reasonable
length can be learned as a whole. If the material is too lengthy, it should be divided as
to secure different units of thoughts and each part constituting a unit of thought must
be studied in parts.

This method of studying in parts referred to as the mediating method. In mediating

method, difficult portion can be learned again and again. However, even in this
method the relation of the parts learned must be correlated to the whole.

The Recitation Method

Learning through recitation can be used in any type of learning material. Recitation
improves attention and helps to immediately correct the errors occurring in learning. It
provides a sense of accomplishment which further motivates for learning.

Spaced vs Un-Spaced Method

It has been proved experimentally that any learning is productive when it is learned
with concentration. Generally, individual is able to concentrate for roughly 30minutes.
Therefore, learning materials should be spaced such a way that one can concentrate
keenly for 30minutes and can continue the learning after a period of rest / recreation.
Distribution of learning periods can be done at the learner’s disposal. Continuous
studies for a longer period in any case are advisable.

Exp: If one has to memorize a piece of poetry by this method, he/she will be advised
to go on repeating it, after sometime he will be given some rest.

Over Learning / Repetitive Learning

After every learning, forgetting sets in especially in early years. This phenomenon can
be overcome only by over learning. Anything that is learned must be overlearned the
next day and then repeated in frequent intervals till learning is completely assured.
Quick Learning Vs Slow Learning

Whether quick learning is better than slow learning. Depends upon whether the
material is meaningful or not. When we are making a quick learning of a meaningless
material it is easily forgotten. But when we are learning a meaningful material, the
quicker the learning, leaser the forgetting.

Rote Learning Vs Insight Learning

Rote learning/ cramming is just by-hearting a material without knowing its meaning.
This type of learning may help sometime in immediate recall but is not a meaningful
method of learning. Since learning is a critical process involving perception,
information, processing, enlargement of meaning, assimilation of ideas and concepts,
etc. it certainly needs time and effort.

Whereas Insight learning refers to the sudden realization of the solution of any
problem without repeated trials or continuous practices.

FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING:

Learning is a process of bringing relatively permanent change in behaviour of the

learner through experience or practice. The learning process is centred on three
elements:
i. The learner, whose behaviour is to be changed or modified.
ii. The type of experience or training required for modification in the learner’s
behaviour.
iii. The men and material resources needed for providing desired experiences
and training.

Factors Associated with Learner:

- Learner Physical health: Physical health of the learner is an important factor.
Fever, sensory defects, malnutrition, loss of sleep and fatigue are some of the
physical handicaps that hinder effective learning.
- Learner’s mental health: Experiments have shown that worries, fears, persistent
day dreaming, feeling of loneliness and inferiority affect learning.
- Basic potential of the learner: Learner’s innate abilities and capacities for
learning, general intelligence, knowledge, understanding skills, basic interest,
aptitudes and attitudes related to the learning of a particular thing or area.
 - The level of motivation: The stronger and clearer the motive in learning
anything, the greater is the effort and interest shown by the learner in learning it.
- Readiness & willpower: A learner’s readiness and willpower to learn is a greater
deciding factor of his results in learning.
- Maturation helps us in the process of learning. Maturation and learning are
closely related to each other.
Factors Associated with type of learning Experience
- Nature of learning experience: Learning is influenced by the nature of the
subject matter and the learning experiences presented to a learner.
- Methodology of learning: Learning depends upon the methods, techniques and
approaches employed for the teaching and learning of the selected contents.
These techniques are: - Linking the recent learning with those of the past,
correlating learning, revision and practice, provision for proper feedback and
reinforcement.
- Meaningfulness of material: The more meaningful the material the faster it is
learned.
- Amount or Length of material
Factors Associated with Men and Material
- A learner is helped by the available resources for bringing desirable changes in
his behaviour. Certain factors which affect learning are;
a. Quality of teaching
b. Available learning material and facilities like teaching-learning aids,
textbooks, library, laboratory, project work etc.
c. Availability of conducive environment like proper seating arrangement, calm
and peaceful environment, absence of distractions, co-operative and
competitive group situations, proper lighting, etc.

Factors Associated with Factors Associated with type Factors Associated with Men
Learner of learning Experience and Material

 Physical health  Nature of learning  Quality of teaching

 Mental health experience  Learning material
 Basic potential  Methodology of  Textbooks
 Motivation learning  Teaching learning aids
 Goals of life  Meaningfulness of  Library and Laboratory
 Readiness and will material facilities
power  Amount of length of  Conducive environment
 Maturation material
 Age
 Emotions
HABIT FORMATION
Making in-depth, reasoned decisions all the time is not possible in terms of both time
and attention. Habits allow one to classify certain behaviors, so that energy and focus
can move to other, perhaps more important, things. We are performing many activities
in our daily loves such as eating food, drinking water, bathing, writing, listening,
walking, talking and many more. Most of these activities are performed and repeated
consciously, may be innate or learned, and are termed as behavior. When these
behaviors are repeatedly performed by people, but they are little or no conscious of
these activities, then such behaviors are known as habits.

• The Cue / Reminder:

It is also known as the reminder, the cue for a habit can be anything that trigger the
habit. The cue can be person, place or any location, thing, or the time of the day. Even
emotions, thoughts or beliefs can be cues to habits.

Exp: It can be time of the day, place, person or emotional state.

• The Routine:

The routine is the second part of the loop, which is the most obvious. It is an action
that can be mental, emotional, or physical. This is the behavior a person wishes to

change (smoking, nail-biting) or reinforce (drinking water instead of cold drink).

• The Reward:

The reward is the positive reinforcement for the desired behavior that a person gets
from engaging in the behavior. It is the reason that action has become a habit because
it satisfies the person or gives a sense of relief.

Therefore, together, these three steps form a neurological feedback loop, that allows a
person to create automatic habits. In this loop, the cue triggers a response, which
provides a reward and satisfies craving, and ultimately becomes associated with the
cue.

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