LEARNING By Udita Boral

WHAT IS LEARNING?
 Learning can be defined as any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of
practice or experience.
 LEARNING is a key process- it pervades everything we do and think. it plays a central role in the language
we speak, our customs, our attitude and beliefs, our goals, our personality traits, and even our
perceptions.
 Woodworth (1945) – any activity can be called learning so far as it develops the individual (in any respect,
good or bad) and makes his later behaviour and experiences different from what they would otherwise
have been..
Nature and characteristics of learning
 Learning is the change in behavior.
 Learning is a continuous life long process.
 Learning is a universal process.
 Learning is purposive and goal directed.
 Learning involves reconstruction of experiences.
 Learning is the product of activity and environment.
 Learning is transferable from one situation to another.
 Learning helps in attainment of teaching – learning objectives.
 Learning helps in the proper growth and development.
 Learning helps in the balanced development of the personality.
 Learning helps in proper adjustment.
 Learning helps in the realization of goals of life.
 Learning does not necessarily imply improvement.
Types of learning
 Motor learning: Most of our activities in our day-to-days life refer to motor activities. The individual has to
learn them in order to maintain his regular life, for example walking, running, skating, driving, climbing,
etc. All these activities involve the muscular coordination
 Verbal learning: This type of learning involves the language we speak, the communication devices we use.
Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds, etc, are the tools used in such activities. We use words for
communication.

 Concept learning: It is the form of learning which requires higher order mental processes like thinking,
reasoning, intelligence, etc. we learn different concepts from childhood. For example, when we see a dog
and attach the term ‘dog’, we learn that the word dog refers to a particular animal. Concept learning
involves two processes, viz. abstraction and generalization. This learning is very useful in recognizing,
identifying things

 Discrimination learning: Learning to differentiate between stimuli and showing an appropriate response
to these stimuli is called discrimination learning. Example, sound horns of different vehicles like bus, car,
ambulance, etc.

 Learning of principles: Individuals learn certain principles related to science, mathematics, grammar, etc.
in order to manage their work effectively. These principles always show the relationship between two or
more concepts. Example: formulae, laws, associations, correlations, etc.

 Problem solving: This is a higher order learning process. This learning requires the use of cognitive
abilities-such as thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination, generalization, etc. This is very useful to
overcome difficult problems encountered by the people.

 Attitude learning: Attitude is a predisposition which determines and directs our behavior. We develop
different attitudes from our childhood about the people, objects and everything we know. Our behavior
may be positive or negative depending upon our attitudes. Example: attitudes of nurse towards her
profession, patients, etc.
Factors influencing learning
 Learner’s physical health
 Learners mental health
 Basic potential of the learner
 The level of motivation
 Goal of life
 Readiness and will power
 Maturation
 Age
 Emotions
 Sex
THEORIES OF LEARNING
 Trial and Error Method of Learning – Thorndike (1874-1949)

Thorndike’s Experiment - He used a 24 hours hungry cat. The cat was fully fed 24 hours back. He used a puzzle box
which had a door that could be opened by a device – by pressing a lever, the latch or pulling a string. The box had
ventilation. The hungry cat was put inside the box and a fish was placed outside. The cat tried to come out by
random movements. These random movements and actions are called exploratory movements. By chance it
happens to press the lever – the door opens, it comes out and eats the fish. The cat is starved again and put in the
box and the whole thing is repeated many times. The cat learns the method to open the door. Now if it is put in
the box, it can easily open the door. It is called trial and error. This is a chance learning or S.R. (Stimulus Response)
learning. This is also called Associative learning

Thorndike's laws of learning and its educational implications

 Law of Readiness:- First primary law of learning, according to him, is the ‘Law of Readiness’ or the ‘Law of
Action Tendency’, which means that learning takes place when an action tendency is aroused through
preparatory adjustment, set or attitude. Readiness means a preparation of action. If one is not prepared to
learn, learning cannot be automatically instilled in him, for example, unless the typist, in order to learn
typing prepares himself to start, he would not make much progress in a lethargic & unprepared manner
 Law of Exercise:- The second law of learning is the ‘Law of Exercise’, which means that drill or practice
helps in increasing efficiency and durability of learning and according to Throndike’s S-R Bond Theory, the
connections are strengthened with trail or practice and the connections are weakened when trial or
practice is discontinued. The ‘law of exercise’, therefore, is also understood as the ‘law of use and disuse’
in which case connections or bonds made in the brain cortex are weakened or loosened. Many examples
of this case are found in case of human learning. Learning to drive a motor-car, typewriting, singing or
memorizing a poem or a mathematical table, and music etc. need exercise and repetition of various
movements and actions many times.
 Law of Effect:- The third law is the ‘Law of Effect’, according to which the trial or steps leading to
satisfaction stamps in the bond or connection. Satisfying states lead to consolidation and strengthening of
the connection, whereas dis-satisfaction, annoyance or pain lead to the weakening or stamping out of the
connection. In fact, the ‘law of effect’ signifies that if the response satisfy the subject, they are learnt and
selected, while those which are not satisfying are eliminated. Teaching, therefore, must be pleasing. The
educator must obey the tastes and interests of his pupils. In other words, greater the satisfaction stronger
will be the motive to learn. Thus, intensity is an important condition of ‘law of effect’
 Law of Multiple – Response- According to it the organism varies or changes its response till an appropriate
behaviour is hit upon. Without varying the responses, the correspondence for the solution might never be
elicited. If the individual wants to solve a puzzle, he is to try in different ways rather than mechanically
persisting in the same way. Throndike’s cat in the puzzle box moved about and tried many ways to come
out till finally it hit the latch with her paw which opened the door and it jumped out.
 The Law of Set or Attitude- Learning is guided by a total set or attitude of the organism, which determines
not only what the person will do but what will satisfy or annoy him. For instance, unless the cricketer sets
himself to make a century, he will not be able to score more runs. A student, similarly, unless he sets to
get first position and has the attitude of being at the top, would while away the time and would not learn
much. Hence, learning is affected more in the individual if he is set to learn more or to excel.
 The Law of Associative Shifting- According to this law we may get an response, of which a learner is
capable, associated with any other situation to which he is sensitive. Thorndike illustrated this by the act
of teaching a cat to stand up at a command. A fish was dangled before the cat while he said ‘ stand up’.
After a number trails by presenting the fish after uttering the command ‘stand up’, he later ousted the fish
and the over all command of ‘stand up’ was found sufficient to evoke the response in the cat by standing
up or her hind legs.
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION
 According to this theory the task can be started from the easier aspect towards its difficult side.
 This approach will benefit the weaker and backward children.
 A small child learns some skills through trial and error method only such as sitting, standing, walking,
running etc. In teaching also the child rectifies the writing after commiting mistakes.
 In this theory more emphasis has been laid on motivation. Thus, before starting teaching in the classroom
the students should be properly motivated.
 Practice leads a man towards maturity. Practice is the main feature of trial and error method. Practice
helps in reducing the errors committed by the child in learning any concept.
 Habits are formed as a result of repeitition. With the help of this theory the wrong habits of the children
can be modified and the good habits strengthened.
 The effects of rewards and punishment also affect the learning of the child. Thus, the theory lays emphasis
on the use of reward and punishment in the class by the teacher.
 The theory may be found quite helpful in changing the behaviour of the delinquent children. The teacher
should cure such children making use of this theory.
 With the help of this theory the teacher can control the negative emotions of the children such as anger,
jealousy etc.
 The teacher can improve his teaching methods making use of this theory. He must observe the effects of
his teaching methods on the students and should not hesitate to make necessary changes in them, if
required.
 The theory pays more emphasis on oral drill work. Thus, a teacher should conduct oral drill of the taught
contents. This help in strengthening the learning more.

Pavlov’s theory of classical conditioning

 Ivan Pavlov -Ivan Pavlov was a famous Russian psychologist
 He lived from 1849 to 1936 He made many discoveries in the psychology field Pavlov won the Nobel Prize
in psychology in 1904
What is Classical Conditioning?
 Classical Conditioning- A learned reflex/response that you do when evoked by a stimulus
 Pavlov performed experiments with dogs on to collect saliva He noticed that the dogs would salivate when
powdered meat was present
 Pavlov associated the ringing of a bell with the presence of powdered meat
 He rang the bell every time the dogs were served food
 Pavlov started ringing the bell and the dogs would salivate without the powdered meat being present
Educational implication of classical conditioning theory
 Fear, love towards a particular subject is created through conditioning.
 A teacher, method of teaching or harsh treatment of his students, create strong dislike among them
towards subject.
 The theory of classical conditioning emphasizes that the students should be exposed to positive stimuli in
order to develop desirable habits, interest and attitudes in them.

OPERAENT CONDITIONING
 “All we need to know in order to describe and explain behavior is this: actions followed by good outcomes
are likely to recur , and actions followed by bad outcomes are less likely to recur.” (Skinner, 1953)
 B. F. Skinner Science of behavior: Study of conditioning and extinction of operants Dependent variable in
the "Skinner box": rate of response Law of acquisition key variable: reinforcement practice provides
opportunities for additional reinforcement
 OPERANT CONDITIONING TECHNIQUES
 POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT = increasing a behavior by administering a reward
 NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT = increasing a behavior by removing an aversive stimulus when a behavior
occurs
 PUNISHMENT = decreasing a behavior by administering an aversive stimulus following a behavior OR by
removing a positive stimulus
 EXTINCTION = decreasing a behavior by not rewarding it

Theory of insightful learning (Gestalt psychology)

 Gestalt psychology was found in Germany in 1912 by max Wertheimer and his colleagues.

 The word “Gestalt” means Form or shape or a particular arrangement of elements.

 The Gestalt Theory believes individuals use insight and their prior experiences to determine their
responses to stimuli. They also use the laws of Gestalt Theory to try to make sense of, and provide order
to, information in their perception. This information leaves a trace in memory; traces link together to form
connections of information. The Gestalt theory is closely related to the present day cognitive constructivist
view of learning. Problem solving is a good choice of instructional methods to use to incorporate the
beliefs of the Gestalt theory. particular arrangement of elements.

Educational implication of gestalt theory

 The organization of the syllabus and planning of the curriculum should give plenty of opportunity to use
the mental abilities.
Cognitive theory of learning
 According to this theory learning through imitation.
 Learning through observing the behavior of others
 Four steps in observational learning
 Paying attention
 Remembering behavior
 Reproducing action
 Being motivated to learn and carry out the behavior.
Transfer of learning
 Definition: Transfer refers to the transfer of knowledge, training and habits acquired in one situation to
another situation.

 Types of transfer

 Positive transfer: When something previously learned benefit performance or learning in a new situation.
Eg: if one has learned to play tennis and he find it easier to learn to plat badminton.

 Negative transfer -When someone previously learnt hinders performance or learning in a new situation,
we call it negative transfer. Eg: Tamil or Guajarati his pronunciation of English is affected.

 Zero: Previous learning makes no difference at all to the performance or learning in a new situation. Eg:
learning history may neither help nor hinder the learning.