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Network Communication and Types

A computer network is an interconnection of computers that use common communication
protocols to share resources across nodes. These nodes—such as PCs, servers, networking
devices, or general hosts—are connected through telecommunication technologies and are
identified by hostnames and network addresses.

Telecommunication means communication over a distance.

Data refers to information in any agreed form used by communicating parties. Data
communication is the exchange of data between two devices through a transmission medium
such as a cable. Data is represented in the following formats

Text

Numbers

Images

Audio

Video

Five components of Data Communication :

Sender

Medium

Protocol

Messages

Receiver

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 Data Flow between two devices is done in three ways →

A network is the interconnection of devices capable of communication. A device can be a host

such as a computer, laptop, workstation, phone, or security system, or a connecting device like a
router, switch, or modem that helps in transferring data. A network must also satisfy key criteria
such as performance, reliability, and security.

Types of connections →

Classification of Networks
Networks are classified on the basis of their :

Size

Geographical Coverage

Ownership

Interconnecting Devices

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 A network is an infrastructure of interconnected devices such as hubs, switches, routers, and
bridges. These devices are used to create LAN, MAN, and WAN networks and enable end-to-end
communication. Each device follows specific rules for data communication and performs
functions like signal enhancement, forwarding, and routing.

List of Networking Devices

Repeaters

Hubs

Bridges

Switches

Routers

Layer Based working of connecting devices

Repeaters :

Physical layer device, works on bits (not frames/packets).

Has 2+ interfaces, regenerates & forwards signals.

Extends cable length in LANs:

10Base5 → 500m/segment, up to 2500m with 4 repeaters.

10Base2 → 185m/segment, up to 925m with 4 repeaters.

No access method → collisions possible if two nodes transmit at once.

Function of a Repeater

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 A repeater connecting two segments of a LAN

Hubs :

Physical layer, multiport repeater; works on bits.

Connects devices in star topology (logical bus).

Uses twisted pair wires (Transmission & Receiver).

No access method in data transmission / filtering → copies frame to all ports.

Forms one collision & one broadcast domain.

Can extend network length with multiple hubs.

No buffering at hub.

Collision domain is that part of the network (set of NICs) when two or more nodes transmit at
the same time collision will happen.

Broadcast domain is that part of the network where each NIC can see other NICs traffic
broadcast messages.

Hub Interaction

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 Bridges :

Work at Data Link layer (MAC address).

Divide LAN into smaller segments or connect LANs with same protocols.

Each LAN segment = separate collision domain.

Perform filtering (unlike hubs/repeaters).

Use a bridge table (forwarding table) for packet forwarding.

Run CSMA/CD before sending a frame (unlike hub/repeater).

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 The above image is of a learning bridge and the process of learning

In heavy load, each station has an average effective theoretical badwidth = 10/12

Each station has an average effective bandwidth equal = 10/3

—-Looping Problems (1,2) left —> Doubt ——————————

Switch :

Works as an N-port bridge (N = no. of stations).

Connects individual computers (not LANs like bridges).

Allows multiple devices to transmit simultaneously.

Operates in full-duplex mode.

Performs MAC address recognition & frame forwarding in hardware (bridge does it in
software).

Types of Switching:

Store-and-forward → receives whole frame, buffers it, does error checking, then forwards
(like bridge).

Cut-through → forwards directly using destination address, no buffering or error

checking.

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 Router :

Operates at network layer, works with packets (not frames).

Connects LANs & WANs, even with different protocols.

Isolates collision & broadcast domains.

Has more than one network address (one per connected network).

Uses IP (network layer address), not MAC.

Routers communicate with each other to exchange routing info.

Finds best path using routing algorithms (software-based).

Forwards traffic if destination info is known; else discards (unlike hub/bridge/switch).

Routers connecting independent LANs and WANs.

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 Interconnecting Router, Switch and Hubs

Network Topologies
A network = set of devices (nodes) connected by communication links.

A node = computer, printer, or any device that can send/receive data.

A link = medium (cable, air, optical fiber, etc.) that carries signals.

Types of connections :-

Point-to-Point → single transmitter & receiver.

Dedicated link: traffic only between two devices.

Full link capacity reserved for transmission.

Multipoint → multiple recipients share a single transmission.

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 Topology :

Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology.

Topology = geometric representation of relationship between links & devices/nodes.

Types:

Physical Topology → actual layout, how devices are interconnected with wires/cables.

Logical Topology → how devices appear connected to the user.

1. Mesh Topology :

Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link with every other device.

No. of physical links = N(N−1).

In duplex mode: links = N(N−1)/2.

Each device needs N−1 input/output ports to connect with other devices.

Node1 connected to N−1 nodes, Node2 to N−1 nodes, … NodeN to N−1 nodes.
Advantages:

Eliminates traffic problems.

Robust.

High privacy & security.

Disadvantages:

Installation & reconnection are difficult.

Wiring can exceed available space.

Expensive hardware.

Example: Telephone regional offices.

2. Star Topology :

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 Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller (hub)

Advantages:

Cheaper than mesh topology.

Each device only need one I/O and one link

Easy to install and reconfigure

Less cabling

Robustness

Disadvantages:

Dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub

It is used in LANs.

3. Bus Topology :

Nodes connect to the bus cable via drop lines & taps.

Drop line = link between device & main cable.

Bus topology is multipoint.

Mesh & Star = examples of point-to-point connections.

Advantages:

Ease of Installation.

Less cabling than mesh or star topologies.

Disadvantages:

Difficult reconnection and fault isolation.

Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality.

A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission.

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 Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology.

4. Ring Topology :

Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices on either side of
it.

Advantages :

Easy to install and reconfigure.

Fault isolation is simplified.

Disadvantages :

Unidirectional traffic.

A single break (e.g., disabled station) can disable the whole network → troubleshooting is
difficult.

Popular in mid-1980s with IBM Token Ring LAN.

Token Ring had a “Star Ring” topology.

Physically looked like Star, but logically Ring.

5. Hybrid Topology :

Topology collection of two or more topologies.

6. Tree Topology :

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 Also known as hierarchical topology

Collection of star networks arranged in a hierarchy.

TCP and OSI Communication Model

Follows the Layering Principle of Communication (data moves step by step through layers).

Entities:

Sender → origin of data.

Carrier → medium (Ethernet cables, wireless, optical fiber, satellite).

Receiver → destination of data.

Protocol → set of rules at each layer for communication.

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 Hardware → provides interconnection infrastructure.

User Interface → allows applications to communicate through the network.

Layer analogy:

Higher layers → create & interpret data (e.g., writing/reading a letter).

Middle layers → deliver between hosts (e.g., mailbox to post office).

Lower layers → physical transmission by carrier (e.g., postman delivering).

OSI Layered Model :

Introduced by ISO in 1970.

OSI = Open Systems Interconnection.

An ISO standard covering all aspects of network communication.

Goal: interoperability of diverse systems using standard protocols.

Layer relation: each layer serves the one above & is served by the one below.

Two components:

1. Basic Reference Model (7 layers).

2. Specific protocols.

Seven Layers (bottom → top):

1. Physical – transmission medium, signals, bits.

2. Data Link – error detection, framing, MAC.

3. Network – logical addressing, routing.

4. Transport – reliable delivery, error control, flow control.

5. Session – dialog control, synchronization.

6. Presentation – translation, encryption, compression.

7. Application – user interface, network services (email, web, etc.).

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 Layers Interconnection in OSI Model

Data Exchange in OSI Model

Physical Layer : The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop
(node) to the next.

Data Link Layer : The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to
the next.

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 Data Link Layer Hop-to-Hop Delivery

Network Layer : The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the
source host to the destination host.

Packet Delivery at Network Layer

Transport Layer : The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one
process to another.

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 Process to Process Delivery at Transport Layer

Session Layer : The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.

Presentation Layer : The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and
encryption.

Application Layer : The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

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 TCP/IP Communication Model :

TCP/IP = Transmission Control Protocol & Internet Protocol.

Used in current Internet architecture.

Developed by DoD’s ARPA (later DARPA) for connecting remote machines.

Protocols = set of rules governing communication.

Layers (bottom → top):

1. Physical – transmission medium, signals.

2. Data Link – framing, error detection.

3. Network – logical addressing (IP), routing.

4. Transport – reliable delivery (TCP), error/flow control.

5. Application – user services (HTTP, FTP, Email, etc.).

At Data Link Layer, this communication works like this

At Network Layer it works like this

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 TCP/IP Addressing at different Layer

TCP/IP Physical Addressing

TCP/IP Logical Addressing

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop, but the logical addresses usually
remain the same.

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 TCP/IP Port Addressing

753

A 16-bit port address represented as one single number.

TCP/IP and OSI Compared

Summary

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