COMPUTER NETWORKS & SYSTEMS APPROACH

UNIT – I
DATA COMMUNICATIONS

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SYLLABUS
• UNIT-I: DATA COMMUNICATIONS: Networks – Components and Categories – Direction of Data flow – Types of Connections –
Topologies – Layering and Protocols – Transmission media – Multiplexing.

• UNIT-II: LINK LAYER: Link layer Services – Framing – Error Detection – Flow control – Noiseless Channels – Noisy Channels – HDLC
– Point to Point Protocols.

• UNIT-III: MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL LAYER: Media access control – Wireless LANs – IEEE 802.11 – ALOHA – CSMA/CD – Random
access – Controlled access – Channelization – Switching.

• UNIT-IV: INTERNETWORKING AND ROUTING: Basic Internetworking (IP, CIDR, ARP, ICMP) – Routing (RIP, OSPF, metrics) –
Global Internet (Areas, BGP, IPv6), Multicast Addresses – Multicast Routing (DVMRP, PIM).

• UNIT-V: TRANSPORT LAYER: Overview of Transport layer – UDP – Reliable byte stream (TCP) – Connection management – Flow
control – Retransmission – TCP Congestion control – Congestion avoidance – QoS – Application requirements – QoS Techniques.

• UNIT-VI: APPLICATION LAYER: Traditional applications – Electronic Mail (SMTP, POP3, IMAP, MIME) – HTTP – Web Services –
DNS – SNMP.
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Data Communication - Components
• Data communication - Exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as cable or air.

• The effectiveness of data communication system depends on

1. Delivery – deliver data to correct destination.
2. Accuracy – data must be delivered undistorted.
3. Timeliness – deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered later are useless.
Ex. real time applications like video conferencing
4. Jitter – Variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video
packets.

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Components of Data Communication System

• Message: data to be transferred

• Sender: Transmitting device

• Receiver: Receiving device

• Medium: transmission media which can be guided / unguided

• Protocol: set of rules that governs data communications. It represents an agreement between
the communicating devices.
• Without a protocol two devices may be connected but not communicating.

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Data representation & Direction of data flow

• Data can be represented in various forms such as text,

numbers, images, audio and video.
• Communication between two devices can be

• Simplex - Communication is unidirectional.

Ex: Keyboard (only input) and monitors (only output)

• Half duplex - Each station can both transmit & receive,

but not at the same time.

Ex: Walky-Talky

• Full duplex - Both stations can transmit and receive

simultaneously.

Ex: Telephone network

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Network
• Network - Set of devices (nodes) connected by communication links.
- Node can be a computer or any device capable of sending and/or receiving data from other
nodes of network.
- Links – wired or wireless media that connects the nodes.

• Computer Network
− Interconnection of computers.

− Computers connected to the network can communicate with each other through other
nodes even though they are not directly connected.
− All nodes in the network may not be computers but are network devices (like switches,
routers etc.,) that facilitate communication.
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Network Goals
The main benefits of networking computers is to make better use of limited resources

• Communication
− Information can be distributed very quickly.

• Resource sharing

• Resources such as files, software and hardware (printer, scanner) can be shared.

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Applications

• A lot of things we take for granted are the result of computer networks.
- Electronic Mail
- Web-browsing
- Digital Libraries
- Video-on-Demand
- Sharing of documents and pictures
- Accessing a centralized database of information
- Video / Audio Conferencing

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Network Criterion

• PERFORMANCE: Evaluated by two metrics throughput and delay. THROUGHPUT may be

increased by sending more no. of messages but we increase the DELAY due to traffic
congestion in network.

• RELIABILITY: Measured by the frequency of failure and the time it takes a link to recover
from a failure.

• SECURITY: Protecting the data and implementing policies for recovery from breaches and
data losses.

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Network Components

• Nodes - Communication end-points

− PCs, Workstations, PDAs, Cellphones, Servers

• Interconnecting devices - used for network extension

- NICs, Bridges, Hubs, Switches, Gateways, Routers etc..

• Links - Carry signals from one place to other place and can be wired/wireless
- Fiber Optic cable, Co-axial cable, Twisted pair cable, air etc.

• Strategies, Algorithms & Protocols -

– Hardware, Software, Firmware level implementations

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Network Categories

• Networks can be classified along many dimensions based on different classification

criteria:

- Switching techniques

- Transmission media

- Mobility support

- Transmission technology types

- Scales

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Network Categories

• Based on switching techniques

– Circuit-Switched Networks (static path)
– Packet-Switched Networks, etc. (dynamic path)
• Based on transmission media
– Wired Networks
– Wireless Networks
• Based on mobility support
– Fixed Networks
– Mobile Networks
• Based on transmission technology types
- Link classification – Point to Point(dedicated), Multi-point/Broadcast (Shared)
- Network classification – Unicast, Multicast, Broadcast
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Network Categories
• Based on scale

TYPES OF
NETWORKS PAN LAN MAN WAN INTERNET

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Type of connections
• Point-to-Point - Dedicated link between two devices. Most of them uses an actual length of
wire or cable to connect the two ends but other options such as microwave, satellite are
possible.

• Multipoint (multidrop) connection - more than two devices share a single line. The capacity
is shared either spatially or temporally.
- Spatially: Several devices can use link simultaneously
- Temporally: Users take turns, it is a time shared

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Topologies

• The way each node is physically connected to the network is topology.

• Types of Topology:
- Physical topology: Actual layout of a network and its transmission media.

- Logical topology: Way in which the data access the network medium and pass through
the network from one device to the next. Defines how nodes in a network communicate
across its physical topology.

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Physical Topology
There are many ways in which computers can be connected together in a computer
network. 

Bus

Mesh Topology Ring

Star
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Bus Topology
• Each node is daisy-chained along the same backbone (cable).
• Information sent from a node travels along the backbone until it reaches its destination node.
• Each end of a bus network must be terminated with a resistor.
• Bus network architectures normally have some scheme of collision handling or collision
avoidance for communication on the bus, quite often uses CSMA or the presence of a bus
master controlling access to the shared bus resource.
• Nodes are connected by drop lines and taps.
- Drop line: connection between device and main cable.
- Tap: connector to create a contact with the metallic core.

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Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages
• Cheap and easy to install • Backbone breaks, whole network is
• Easy to add stations down
• Use less cable than other topologies • If more no. of devices are attached to
• Works well for small networks the bus - performance problems arise
• Sharing same cable slows response
rates

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Ring Topology

• Similar to bus network, rings have nodes daisy chained, but the end of the network in a ring
topology comes back around to the first node, creating a complete circuit.
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection only with the two devices on either side
of it.
• Data travels in circular fashion. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction from device
until it reaches its destination.
• Each device in the ring incorporate a repeater that helps regenerating the signal.
• Repeater receives a weakened signal, creates a copy at the original strength.

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Advantages & Disadvantages

• Easy to install and reconfigure.

- Each device is linked only to its immediate neighbors. To add or delete a device requires
hanging only 2 connections.
• Fault isolation is simplified.
- A signal is circulating at all times (token); if one device does not receive a signal within
specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the network operator its location.

• Unidirectional traffic.
• A break in the ring (such as disabled station) can disable the entire network.

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Star Topology
• In a star network, the nodes are not directly linked to one another. Each node is connected
to a central device called a hub.

• The hub (central controller) takes a signal that comes from any node and passes it along to
all the other nodes in the network.

• Point to point connection between node and hub.

• A hub does not perform any type of filtering or routing of the data. It is a junction that joins
all the different nodes together.
• Ex: High speed LANs

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Advantages & Disadvantages

• Easy to add devices as the network expands

• One cable failure does not bring down the entire network
• Hub provides centralised management
• Easy to find device and cable problems
• Device need only one link and I/O port
• Lots of support as it is the most used

• Requires more cable

• Failure of the central hub can bring down the entire network
• Costs are higher (installation and equipment)

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Mesh Topology

• Each node is connected to every other node that has a dedicated point-to-point link.
• In a mesh network with ‘n’ nodes, we need n(n-1)/2 duplex links.
• To accommodate that many links every device on the network must have (n-1) I/O ports to
be connected to the other (n-1) stations.
• Allows communication to continue in the event of a break in any one connection.

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Advantages & Disadvantages

• Improves Fault Tolerance.

• Use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load.
• Robust - If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire system.
• Privacy or security.

• Expensive
• Difficult to install
• Difficult to manage
• Difficult to troubleshoot

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Hybrid topology: Star backbone with Bus networks
• Combines two or more different physical topologies

• Commonly Star-Bus or Star-Ring

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Tree Topology

• Is a variation of star.
• Not every device plugs directly into the central hub. The majority of devices connect to
secondary hub that in turn is connected to the central hub.
• Advantages and disadvantages - same as those of star.
• The addition of secondary hubs bring more advantage:
• Allow more devices to be attached to a single central hub, therefore increase the distance
a signal can travel between devices.

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Network Categories

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Personal Area Network

• Small in size, belong to a single person and are limited to a small area like room,
body or garden etc.
• PANs mostly use short-range wireless technologies for interconnecting various
nodes that comprise them.
• Ex: Infrared, Bluetooth

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 Local Area Network

• Geographically contiguous area in which the inter-node distance is less than or equal
to one kilometre.
• LANs are always owned by a single entity (private organization / individual).
Ex. LAN technologies:
- Ethernet in wired and Wi-Fi in wireless category
• LANs are designed to allow hardware (printer) and software (data) to be shared
between PCs.

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 Metropolitan Area Network
• Owned by private company or it may be a service provided by public company (local
telephone company).
• May be single network such as a cable television network, or it may be connected
number of LANs into a large network.
• Extended over an entire city. The inter-node distance does not exceed ten kilometres.
This, however, is not a hard-and-fast rule.
• Ex: Company can use MAN to connect the LANs in all its offices throughout the city.

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 Wide Area Network

• Provides long distance transmission of data, voice, image and video information over
large areas.
• In contrast to LAN, WAN may utilize public or private communication equipment or
combination. Computers are connected by telephone lines or radio waves or optical
fibers.
• WAN may be spread over several cities / towns, a state, a country or even a continent.

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Internet

• Two or more networks connected together.

• The vast collection of computer networks which form and act as a single huge
network for transport of data and messages across distances which can be anywhere
from the same office to anywhere in the world.

• Joins many government, university and private computers together and provides an
infrastructure for the use of e-mail, bulletin boards, file archives, databases and other
computational resources.

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Interconnection of networks: Internetwork

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Hierarchical Organization

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ARPANET

• In 1960s, computers in research organizations were standalone devices which

cannot communicate with computers from other manufacturers.
• Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) presented its idea for ARPANET, small
network of connected computers.
• ARPANET is network of 4 different nodes connected via IMP( Interface Message
Processor).
• UCLA (University of California, Los Angeles)

• UCSB (University of California, Santa Barbara)

• SRI (Stanford Research Institute)

• University of Utah 35
Protocols & Standards

∗ Protocols

∗ Standards

∗ Standards Organization

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 Protocol

• For proper communication, entities in different systems must speak the same
language.

• Set of rules that governs data communications.

• Protocol defines
⇢What is communicated?

⇢How it is communicated?

⇢When it is communicated?

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Key elements of Protocol

• Syntax: Structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which they are
presented.
- Simple protocol might expect the first byte of data to be the address of the sender, the second
byte to be the address of the receiver and the reset of the stream to be the message itself.

• Semantics: Interprets the meaning of bits and knows which fields define what action.
- Does an address identify the route to be taken or the final destination of the message.

• Timing: When data to should be sent?

How fast they can be sent?
- If a sender produces data at 100Mpbs but the receiver can process data at only 1Mbps,
transmission will overload the receiver and data will be largely lost.

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 Standards

• Provide guidelines for development to manufactures, vendors, government agencies and other
service provides to ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's marketplace and
international communication.

Two categories:

• De jure/Formal: legislated by an officially recognized body.

- Ex: ISO OSI

• De fact: Not approved by an organized body but adopted by convention or through widespread
use. Established by manufacturers that define the functionality of a new product or technology.

- Ex: TCP/IP 39
 Standards Organization
Standards
• International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
- Multinational body
- OSI

• International Telecommunication Union - Telecommunication standard sector ( ITU-T)

- Devoted to the research of standards for telecommunication in general and for phone and data system
in particular.
- Data transmission over telephone line Modems standards: V- series( V32, V34,V90).
- X-series: data transmission over public digital network (e- mail).

• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

- Completely private, nonprofit corporation
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 Standards Organization (contd…)
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
- International in scoop
- In the fields of electrical engineering, electronics and all related branches of engineering

• Electronic Industries Association (EIA)

- Field of Information Technology (SONET)

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Standards Organization (contd…)

• Forums
- Work with universities and users to test evaluate and standardize new
technologies. Present their conclusions to standard bodies.
Frame Relay Forum
ATM Forum

• Regulatory Agencies
- Protects the public interest by regulating radio television and wired
communications.
Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
National Communications Commission (NCC)

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ISO/ OSI Model

• ISO
- International Standards Organization
• OSI
- Open Systems Interconnection
• Introduced in 1978 and revised in 1984.
• Formulates the communication process into 7 structured layers.
• Theoretical blueprint that helps us understand how data gets from one user’s computer to
another.
• Each layer performs a unique function and works on its own protocol.
• It is a model for designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust and interoperable.

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 ISO/ OSI Model
What is layering in Networks?
• Breaks down communication into smaller, simpler parts.
Why a layered model?
• Reduces complexity.
• Allows different hardware and software to work together.
• Standardization across manufacturers.
• Speeds development, changes in one layer does not affect how the other levels
works.
Why use a reference model?
• Serves as an outline of rules for how protocols can be used to allow communication
between computers.
• Each layer has its own function and provides support to other layers.
• Other reference models in use - TCP/IP model.
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Seven layers of OSI model

Allow access to network resources

Data Representation – Translate, encrypt and

compress
Inter-host communication – establish, manage and
terminate
End to end connection – reliable process – process
delivery and error recovery
Provide internetworking - Address and best path

Bits to frames, access to media & hop to hop delivery

Binary transmission, electrical and mechanical

specifications

All People Seem To Need Data Processing 45

OSI Model
• LAYERING - Divides the problem of moving information between computers
over a network into 7 smaller and more manageable problems that reduces
complexity.

• The lower 4 layers are concerned with the flow of data from end to end through
the network – DATA FLOW LAYERS.

• The upper 3 layers are oriented more towards providing services to the
applications – APPLICATION LAYERS.

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Exchange using the OSI model

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Interaction between layers in the OSI model

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 OSI Reference Model - Physical Layer

• Deals with the physical characteristics & type of the transmission medium,
7 Application
coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over a physical
6 Presentation medium.
• It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces
5 Session
have to perform for transmission to occur.

4 Transport • Encodes logical 1’s and 0’s coming from layer 2 into electrical/optical signals &
transmits converted electrical/optical signals over a physical channel.
3 Network
• Characteristics such as voltage levels, synchronization, data rates, maximum
2 Data Link transmission distances, physical connectors, and topology, line configuration are
defined by physical layer specifications.
1 Physical
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Ex: EIA-232, RJ45, NRZ
Physical Layer

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 OSI Reference Model – Data Link layer

7 Application • Provides access to the networking media & physical transmission across the media
that enables data to locate its intended destination on same network(node-node
6 Presentation
delivery).

5 Session • Divides packets received from network layer into data units called FRAMES.

• Physical addressing - Provides reliable transit of data across a physical link by using
4 Transport
the Media Access Control (MAC) addresses.
3 Network • The data link layer uses the MAC address to define a hardware in order for multiple
stations to share the same medium and still uniquely identify each other.
2 Data Link
• Concerned with error control, access control and flow control.
1 Physical • Deals with network transmission protocols - IEEE 802. protocol. 51
Data Link layer

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Data Link layer

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OSI Reference Model - Network Layer

7 Application • Defines end-to-end(source to destination) delivery of packets across multiple

networks.
• Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified.
6 Presentation
- Physical addressing implemented by DLL handles addressing problem
locally.
5 Session - Network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer
that includes the logical address of the sender and receiver.
4 Transport • Defines how routing works and how routes are learned so that the packets
can be delivered.
- When independent networks or links are connected together to create an
3 Network
internetwork, the connecting devices (routers or switches) route or
switch the packets to their final destination.
2 Data Link • Defines how to fragment a packet into smaller packets to accommodate
different media.
1 Physical • Routers operate at Layer 3.
• Example :- IP 54
Network Layer

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Network Layer

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OSI Reference Model – Transport Layer

7 Application • Responsible for the process to process (application program) delivery of a message.
• Regulates information flow to ensure end-to-end connectivity between host
6 Presentation
applications reliably and accurately.

5 Session • Segments data from the sending host and reassembles the data into a data stream
at the receiving host.
4 Transport
• The boundary between the transport layer and the session layer can be thought of
as the boundary between application protocols and data-flow protocols.
3 Network
• Port addressing, Segmentation and reassembly, Connection control, end to end
2 Data Link
flow and error control.

1 Physical • Ex: TCP and UDP

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Transport Layer

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Port Numbers

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OSI Reference Model – Session layer

7 Application
• Enables two networked resources to hold ongoing communications (called a

6 Presentation session) across a network.

• Defines how to start, control and end conversations between applications.
5 Session • This includes the control and management of multiple bidirectional messages
using dialogue control. Responsible for security and access control to session
4 Transport
information.
• Allows a process to add checkpoints or synchronization points to stream of data
3 Network
to ensure data is received and acknowledged independently.
2 Data Link

1 Physical
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Session layer

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OSI Reference Model – Presentation layer

7 Application • Handles the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between
the two systems.
6 Presentation
• It was designed for data translation, encryption, decryption, and

5 Session compression.
• Presentation layer defines the format in which the data is to be exchanged
4 Transport between the two communicating entities.
• If necessary, the presentation layer translates between multiple data formats
3 Network
by using a common format.

2 Data Link • Examples :- JPEG, MPEG, ASCII, EBCDIC, HTML

1 Physical 62
Presentation layer

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OSI Reference Model - Application layer

7 Application
• Application layer interacts with application programs and is the highest level of

6 Presentation OSI model.

• Provides a set of interfaces for sending and receiving applications to gain access
5 Session to and use network services such as: electronic mail, remote file access, www,
and so on.
4 Transport
• It differs from the other layers in that it does not provide services to any other

3 Network OSI layer, but rather, only to applications outside the OSI model.
• Establishes the availability of intended communication partners, synchronizes
2 Data Link and establishes agreement on procedures for error recovery and control of data
integrity.
1 Physical
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Application layer

X400 – Message handling services, basic for email forwarding and storage
X500-directory services, provides distributed database sources and access for global information
FTAM- File Transfer Access and Management, allows file access and control in a remote host
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OSI Architecture

The OSI 7-layer Model

OSI – Open Systems Interconnection
 Description of Layers
• Physical Layer
- Handles the transmission of raw bits over a communication link
• Data Link Layer
- Collects a stream of bits into a larger aggregate called a frame
- Network adaptor along with device driver in OS implement the protocol in this
layer
- Frames are actually delivered to hosts
• Network Layer
- Handles routing among nodes within a packet-switched network
- Unit of data exchanged between nodes in this layer is called a packet

The lower three layers are implemented on all network nodes

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Description of Layers
• Transport Layer
- Implements a process-to-process channel
- Unit of data exchanges in this layer is called a message
• Session Layer
- Provides a name space that is used to tie together the potentially different
transport streams that are part of a single application
• Presentation Layer
- Concerned about the format of data exchanged between peers
• Application Layer
- Standardize common type of exchanges

The transport layer and the higher layers typically run only on end-hosts and
not on the intermediate switches and routers
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Function of each layer - Summary

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Physical Layer

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Major Functions
• Moves data in the form of electromagnetic signal across transmission medium.
• Data usable to a person or application are not in a form that can be directly transmitted over a
network. The data will be in the form of electrical pulses if it is Coaxial or Twisted Pair cable and in the
form of Light if it is Fiber Optic Cable.
• Modulates signal - process of converting a signal from one form to another so that it can be
physically transmitted over a communication channel.
• Bit-by-bit delivery.
• Line coding, which allows data to be sent by hardware devices that are optimized for digital
communications that may have discrete timing on the transmission link.
• Bit synchronization for synchronous serial communications.
• Start-stop signaling and flow control in asynchronous serial communication.
• Circuit switching and multiplexing, hardware control of multiplexed digital signals.

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From Signals to Packets

Analog Signal

“Digital” Signal

Bit Stream 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
010001010101110010101010101110111000000111101010111010101010110101101
Packets
Header/Body Header/Body Header/Body

Packet
Transmission Sender Receiver
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Data and Signals

• To be transmitted, data must be transformed into electromagnetic signals.

• Data can be
- Analog – takes continuous values
- Digital – takes discrete values
- Ex: Analog and Digital clock, Voice signals, bits in computer memory
• Signals that represent data can also be
- Analog – infinite no. of values in a range
- Digital – limited no. of values

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Data and Signals

• In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog and non-periodic digital signals

In general, if a signal has L levels, each level needs log 2 L bits

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Transmission

Transmission – send info. from one point to other either as digital or as analog signal.

• Digital transmission: data transmission using square waves.

• Analog transmission: transfer of a continuously varying analog signal(sine wave).

• Several advantages & disadvantages of digital transmission over analog transmission.

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Transmission of digital signals
• Baseband transmission: Sending a digital signal over a channel without changing it to analog signal.
• Digital transmission on a wire typically “consumes” the entire channel and is labeled baseband signaling.
• A digital signal is a composite analog signal with infinite bandwidth.
• LAN is a common example of base band signaling.
• Uses Low pass channel, supports bi-directional transmission.

• Broadband/Modulation: changing digital signal to an analog signal for transmission(long distances).

• Transmission of data is unidirectional, band pass channel (BW does not start from 0).

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 Mapping Data symbols onto Signal levels
• Data element- smallest entity that represent a piece of information and can consist of a number of
data bits: 1 , 0 (or) 11, 10, 01, ……

• A signal element carries data elements and is the shortest unit(time wise) of digital signals.

• Data elements (carried) are what we need to send and signal elements(carriers) are what we can
send.

• A data element can be coded into a single signal element or multiple signal elements

• 1 -> +V, 0 -> -V

• 1 -> +V and -V, 0 -> -V and +V
• The ratio ‘r’ is the number of data elements carried by a signal element.

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Signal element versus data element

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 Relationship between data rate and signal rate

• The data rate defines the number of data elements sent per sec - bps. It is often referred to as the bit
rate.

• The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in a second and is measured in baud. It is also
referred to as the modulation rate/pulse rate/baud rate.

• Goal is to increase the data rate whilst reducing the baud rate.

• Increasing data rate increases transmission speed, while decreasing signal rate reduces bandwidth
requirement.

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Data rate and Baud rate
• The baud or signal rate can be expressed as:
S = c x N x 1/r bauds
where N is data rate
c is the case factor (worst, best & avg.)
r is the ratio between data element & signal element
Ex: A signal is carrying data in which one data element is encoded as one signal element ( r = 1). If the
bit rate is 100 kbps, what is the average value of the baud rate if c is between 0 and 1? Solution: We
assume that the average value of c is 1/2 . The baud rate is then

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Bandwidth

• Although the actual bandwidth of a digital signal is infinite, the effective bandwidth is finite.

• The baud rate determines the required bandwidth for a digital signal.

• Transportation Analogy:
- No. of vehicles affects the traffic, not the number of people being carried

• Minimum bandwidth and maximum data rate for a given bandwidth are given as

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 Baseline Wandering

• In decoding a digital signal, receiver calculates the running average power of the received signal
(called the baseline) and baseline is used to determine the value of the incoming data elements.

• If the incoming signal does not vary over a long period of time (long string of 0/1), the baseline will
drift and thus cause errors in detection of incoming data elements – Baseline Wandering.

• Difficult for receiver to decode correctly.

• A good line encoding scheme will prevent base line wandering.

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 Sharing a physical link
How can we maximize the
bandwidth utilization of a physical
link?

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Multiplexing

• Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of available bandwidth to achieve specific goals.
• Efficiency can be achieved by multiplexing.
• Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the
devices, the link can be shared.
• Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals
across a single data link.

Dividing a link into channels

• Multiplexer - Combines multiple streams into a single

stream (many to one).

• De-multiplexer - Separates the stream back into its

component transmission (one to many) and directs
them to their correct lines.
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Categories of Multiplexing

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Frequency Division Multiplexing

• FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines analog signals.

• Assignment of non-overlapping frequency ranges to each user or signal on a medium. Thus, all
signals are combined and transmitted at the same time, each using different frequencies.
• Channels must be separated by strips of unused bandwidth - guard bands to prevent signal overlap.

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FDM Multiplexing Process

• Signals of each channel are modulated onto different carrier signal.

• The resulting modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that is sent out
over a media link.
• The link should have enough bandwidth to accommodate it.

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FDM Demultiplexing Process

• Demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into its constituent
component signals.

• The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that separates them from their carriers and
passes them to the waiting receivers.

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FDM – Problem 1
• Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4 kHz. We need to combine three voice
channels into a link with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz. Show the configuration, using
the frequency domain. Assume there are no guard bands.

Solution:

We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a different bandwidth. We use the 20- to
24-kHz bandwidth for the first channel, the 24- to 28-kHz bandwidth for the second channel, and
the 28- to 32-kHz bandwidth for the third one. Then we combine them as shown in figure.

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FDM – Problem 1 (contd…)

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FDM – Problem 2
• Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be multiplexed together. What is the
minimum bandwidth of the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10 kHz between the
channels to prevent interference?

Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands
This means that the required bandwidth is at least
5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz

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Applications of FDM

• AM and FM radio broadcasting.

• Television broadcasting

• First generation cellular phones.

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Wavelength Division Multiplexing

• An analog technology used in fiber optic communications to take the advantage of high data rates.
• It multiplexes a no. of optical carrier signals onto a single optical fiber by using
different wavelengths (colours) of laser light. Each colour of light carries separate data channel.
• It is similar in concept to FDM. The signals being multiplexed are light waves carried by optical fiber with
high frequencies.
• Each signal carried on the fiber can be transmitted at a different rate from the other signals. Narrow
bands of light from different sources are combined to make a wider band of light.

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 Time Division Multiplexing
• TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate channels into one high-rate one.
• Instead of sharing a portion of BW as in FDM, time is shared.
• Time Slots and Frames
• Each host is given a “slice” of time (time slot).
• In TDM, a frame consists of one complete cycle of time slots, with one slot dedicated to each
sending device.
• TDM comes in two basic forms:
• Synchronous TDM
• Statistical/Asynchronous TDM

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Synchronous TDM

• In synchronous TDM, the data rate of the link is n times faster, and the unit duration is n times
shorter.

• Time slots are grouped into frames which consists of one complete cycle of time slots with one slot
dedicated to each sending device.

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Interleaving in Synchronous TDM

• TDM can be visualized as two fast rotating switches one on Mux’ng side and other on Demux’ng
side.
• The switches are synchronized and rotate at the same speed but in opposite directions. Switch
opens before a connection that sends a unit of data on the path. This is called Interleaving.

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Framing Synchronization

• Synchronization between MUX and DEMUX is a major issue. Hence sync bits are added to
beginning of each frame, also called framing bits.
• They follow a pattern frame to frame and alternates between 0 and 1.

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Statistical TDM
• Slots are dynamically allocated to improve the BW efficiency.
• No. of slots in each frame is less than no. of input lines.
• Time slots allocated based on traffic patterns.
• No synchronization bits are needed.
• Capacity of the link is normally less than sum of the capacities of each channel.

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TDM slot comparison

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Transmission medium & Physical layer

• Transmission media are located below the physical layer and are directly controlled by the physical
layer. Ex: Metallic cable, free space or fiber optic cable. They belong to layer 0.
• The information from source to destination is usually sent as an electrical or light signal.

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Classes of Transmission Media
• In telecommunications, transmission media has two main categories:

• Guided ― Wired, Ex: Metallic cables

• Unguided ― Wireless Transmission, Ex: Radio, Microwave, Infrared, Sound, Sonar

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 Guided media

• Guided media provide a conduit from one device to another, include

– Twisted-pair cable
Uses copper conductors that accepts and transports
signals in the form of electric current.
– Coaxial cable

– Fiber-optic cable – accepts and transports signals in the form of light.

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 Twisted-pair cable

• Consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together. One to carry signals to receiver and other is
used as ground reference. Receiver uses the difference between two. Apart from signal, noise may affect
both wires & create unwanted signals.
• Cable twisting helps to reduce noise pickup from outside sources and crosstalk. If the pair of wires are
not twisted, electromagnetic noises will affect the closer wire more than the farther one, thereby
causing errors. Used for voice and data communications.

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UTP and STP cables
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cables are typically wrapped inside a plastic cover (for mechanical
protection) and are most commonly used. Ex: Telephone cables, LAN cable.

• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) - Similar to UTP cables, except there is a metal foil or braided-metal-
mesh cover that encases each pair of insulated wires. Mesh covering improves the quality by
preventing crosstalk and noise from outside source but is bulkier & expensive.

•EIA classified UTP into seven categories based on the quality with 1- lowest and 7-highest.
Data rates range from 0.1 Mbps to 600Mbps.

RJ-45 (Registered Jack) – common UTP connector

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Coaxial cable
• Coaxial cables or coax, carry signals of higher frequency (100KHz–500MHz) than twisted pair cables.

• It has central core conductor(copper) enclosed in insulating sheath which is in turn encased in outer
conductor of metal foil.

• Outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second conductor that
completes the circuit. It is enclosed in an insulating sheath and the whole cable is protected by a plastic
cover.
•Different categories – RG – 59, 58, 11 used in cable TV, ethernet

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BNC connectors
• To connect coaxial cables to devices, we need coaxial connectors. Most common are BNC
(Bayone – Neill - Concelman) that are used to connect to TV sets. Also used in Ethernet networks.
BNC terminator is used to prevent the reflection of signals.

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 Fiber-Optic Cables
• Fiber optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
• Light travels at 3108 ms-1 in free space and is the fastest possible speed in the Universe. It travels in
straight line through a single uniform substance. When it changes the medium, direction changes.
• Light slows down in denser media, e.g. glass.
• Refraction occurs at interface, with light bending away from the normal when it enters a less dense
medium.

• Beyond the critical angle  total internal reflection

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 Optical fiber

• An optical fiber consists of a core (denser material) surrounded by a cladding (less dense material). It
uses reflection to guide light through channel.
• Two propagation modes – multimode and single mode.
• Multimode propagation – multiple beams of light move through the core in different paths and
density of core remains constant from centre to edges.
• Step-index – Density of core remains constant from center to edges. At interface, abrupt
change of refractive index between the core and the cladding due to low density that alters the
beam angle. Light bounces back and forth along the core.
• Graded index – it has varying densities and decreases distortion of signal through the cable.
High density at centers and decreases gradually at edges.
• Single mode propagation – uses step index fiber and highly focused source of light.
• Common light sources: LEDs and lasers

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Advantages and Disadvantages

• Noise resistance ― external light is blocked by outer jacket.

• Less signal attenuation.

• Higher bandwidth ― currently, limits on data rates come from the signal generation/reception
technology, not the fiber itself.

• Cost ― Optical fibers are expensive.

• Installation/maintenance ― any crack in the core will degrade the signal, and all connections must be
perfectly aligned.

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Propagation Modes

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Unguided Media: Wireless

• Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type of
communication is referred to as wireless communication and are transmitted through free space.
• Part of electromagnetic spectrum(3KHz -900THz) used for wireless communication is shown below.
Radio and microwave is divided into 8 bands – VLF, LF, MF, HF, VHF, UHF, SHF, EHF

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Propagation Methods
Unguided signals travel in several waves.
• Ground propagation:
Low frequency radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere and follow the
curvature of the planet. Distance depends on the amount of signal power. Greater power, longer distances.
• Sky propagation:
High frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere where they are reflected back to earth.
It allows greater distance with low output power.
• Line-of- sight propagation:
VHF signals are transmitted in straight lines directly from antenna to antenna. Antennas must be facing
each other, directional or tall enough.

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Wireless Transmission Waves

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Radio waves – Omni-directional Antenna

• Radio waves are electromagnetic waves with frequencies in the

range 3KHz – 1GHz. They use omni-directional antennas that
sends signals in all directions.
• It means sender and receiver antenna need not be aligned.
• Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as
radio and television.
• They can penetrate through walls. Highly regulated. Use Omni
directional antennas.
• Good for long distance broad casting and multicasting.
• Susceptible to interference by other antennas that send signals
using the same frequency.

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Microwaves - Unidirectional Antennas
• Microwaves (1-300GHz) are used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones,
satellite networks, and wireless LANs.
• Higher frequency ranges cannot penetrate walls.
• Use unidirectional antennas - point to point line of sight communications. No
interference.

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Infrared

• Infrared signals (300GHz – 400THz) can be used for short-range communication in a

closed area using line-of-sight propagation.

• Since high frequencies, they do not penetrate through walls. No interference, but
cannot be used outside a building.

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