OVERVIEW OF

NETWORKING
UNIT-4
COMPUTER NETWORK

A computer network comprises two or more computers

that are connected—either by cables (wired) or WiFi
(wireless)—with the purpose of transmitting, exchanging,
or sharing data and resources.
You build a computer network using hardware (e.g.,
routers, switches, access points, and cables) and software
(e.g., operating systems or business applications).
TYPES OF NETWORK

There are 3 major types of network structures classified

based on the distance coverage capacity,
communication, data transfer speed, and size. They
are:
•LAN - Local Area Network
•MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
•WAN - Wide Area Network
LAN(LOCAL AREA NETWORK)
LAN stands for Local Area Network, and it entails the
connection between personal computers in a single
building or local areas such as schools, business
offices, and office buildings.
The LAN can be a wired network (i.e. where computers,
printers, etc. devices are connected via wires) or a
wireless network.
LAN is a private network and is owned by any single
organization i.e. LAN has private ownership.
MAN(METROPOLITAN AREA
NETWORK)
MAN stands for the Metropolitan Area Network, and it
covers a larger geographical area in comparison to
LAN. It can be both, a public or private network.
It is expandable to up to 100 km and can span an
entire city. An example of the MAN could be a network
formed between all devices in a city building. Another
example can be telephone lines.
Since MAN spans at least a few km, data transmission
speed is comparatively low.
WAN(WIDE AREA NETWORK)
WAN stands for the Wide Area Network and the
network size can span up to 1,00,000 km of area. Take
for example the network connection between two
countries.
In short, WAN allows us to build one of the largest
networks and expand it to a few thousand kilometers.
Ownership of the WAN also can either be private or
public, for example in the case of internet services.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
A network topology defines the physical
interconnection of its constituent elements.
We can say that the topology of a network defines how
the various nodes of the network are interconnected.
Here the interconnection can be real or logical.
The term Real implies physical or actual connection
and logical interconnection refers to the way data is
exchanged between the constituents.
Types of Network Topology

 BUS Topology
Bus topology is a type of network in which each computer and network device is joined to a
single cable. When it consists of exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.
Features of BUS Topology
1.It sends data only in one direction.
2.Every device is linked to a single cable.
Advantage of BUS Topology
1.Cost-effective.
2.Cable requirement is minimal as compared to other topologies.
3.Useful in small networks.
4.Easy to understand.
5.Easy to expand by connecting two cables.
The Disadvantage of BUS Topology
1.The whole network fails if cables fail.
2.The performance of the network decreases in case network
traffic is heavy or nodes are more or the cable has a limited
length.
3.It works slower as compared to the ring topology.
RING Topology
It is named ring topology because it creates a ring as each
computer is linked to the neighboring computer, with the last
one linked to the first, there are exactly two neighbors for each
computer.
Ring topology has the advantages listed below:

•Simple installation
•Fewer Cables are needed.
•Minimizes the possibility of data collision.
•An easy problem to solve.
•The access time is the same for every node

The following are some drawbacks to ring topology:

• The network as a whole will collapse if one node fails.

• Slow data transfer rate as each message has to go through the ring path.
• Getting more difficult to reconfigure.
STAR TOPOLOGY
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a
single hub through a cable. This hub is the central node and all
others nodes are connected to the central node.
Features of Star Topology

1.Every node has its own dedicated connection to

the hub.
2.Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3.Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or
coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

4.Fast performance with few nodes and low network

traffic.
5.Hub can be upgraded easily.
6.Easy to troubleshoot.
Disadvantages of Star Topology

1.Cost of installation is high.

2.Expensive to use.
3.If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped
because all the nodes depend on the hub.
4.Performance is based on the hub that is it
depends on its capacity
Mesh topology

In a mesh topology, all the nodes are interconnected and can

send and receive their data and relay data from other nodes.
Tree topology

In a tree topology, nodes are arranged in a configuration that

resembles a tree’s leaves, branches, and trunk. Endpoints, or
‘leaves,’ are connected to mid-level nodes or ‘branches’ linked to
the tree’s ‘trunk.’ The trunk is the backbone connection that links
multiple mid-level nodes.
MODES OF DATA TRANSMISSION
Data Transmission mode defines the direction of the
flow of information between two communication
devices . It is also called Data Communication or
Directional Mode. It specifies the direction of the flow of
information from one place to another in a computer
network.
The data transmission modes can be characterized in the following
three types based on the direction of exchange of information:
 Simplex
 Half-Duplex
 Full Duplex

1. SIMPLEX
Simplex is the data transmission mode in which the data can flow
only in one direction, i.e., the communication is unidirectional. In this
mode, a sender can only send data but can not receive it. Similarly, a
receiver can only receive data but can not send it.
For Example, Radio and TV transmission, keyboard, mouse, etc.
2. Half-Duplex
Half-Duplex is the data transmission mode in which the
data can flow in both directions but in one direction at a
time. It is also referred to as Semi-Duplex. In other words,
each station can both transmit and receive the data but not
at the same time. When one device is sending the other
can only receive and vice-versa.
For Example, Walkie-Talkie, Internet Browsers,
etc.
3. Full-Duplex
Full-Duplex is the data transmission mode in which the data
can flow in both directions at the same time. It is bi-directional
in nature. It is two-way communication in which both the
stations can transmit and receive the data simultaneously.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Transmission media is a communication channel that transmits
information from the source/transmitter to the receiver. It is a
physical path for data transfer through electromagnetic
signals. Information is carried over in the form of bits
through LAN.
GUIDED MEDIA
OSI MODEL
The open systems interconnection (OSI) model is a
conceptual model created by the International
Organization for Standardization which enables diverse
communication systems to communicate using
standard protocols.
In plain English, the OSI provides a standard for
different computer systems to be able to communicate
with each other.
7. The application layer
This is the only layer that directly interacts with data from the user.
Software applications like web browsers and email clients rely on the
application layer to initiate communications.
Application layer protocols include HTTP as well as SMTP (Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol is one of the protocols that
enables email communications).

6. The presentation layer

This layer is primarily responsible for preparing data so that it can be
used by the application layer; in other words, layer 6 makes the data
presentable for applications to consume. The presentation layer is
responsible for translation, encryption, and compression of data.
5. The session layer
This is the layer responsible for opening and closing communication
between the two devices. The time between when the
communication is opened and closed is known as the session. The
session layer ensures that the session stays open long enough to
transfer all the data being exchanged, and then promptly closes the
session in order to avoid wasting resources.

4. The transport layer

Layer 4 is responsible for end-to-end communication between the
two devices. This includes taking data from the session layer and
breaking it up into chunks called segments before sending it to layer
3. The transport layer on the receiving device is responsible for
reassembling the segments into data the session layer can consume.
Transport layer protocols include the Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
3. The network layer

The network layer is responsible for facilitating data transfer

between two different networks. The network layer breaks up
segments from the transport layer into smaller units,
called packets, on the sender’s device, and reassembling these
packets on the receiving device.
Network layer protocols include IP, the Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMP), the Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP), and
the IPsec suite.

2. The data link layer

The data link layer is very similar to the network layer, except the
data link layer facilitates data transfer between two devices on
the same network. The data link layer takes packets from the
network layer and breaks them into smaller pieces called frames.
1.The physical layer
This layer includes the physical equipment involved in the data
transfer, such as the cables and switches. This is also the layer
where the data gets converted into a bit stream, which is a
string of 1s and 0s.
INTERNET AND ITS USES
The internet is defined as a global network of linked
computers, servers, phones, and smart appliances that
communicate with each other using the transmission
control protocol (TCP) standard to enable the fast
exchange of information and files, along with other
types of services.
INTRANET
An intranet is similar to an internet but its use is
restricted to authorized users and usually contains less
content than the entire internet.
An intranet is comprised of several key components:
•Web server
•Local-area network (LAN) or wide-area network (WAN)
•Firewall (optional, but highly recommended)
•CMS(Campus Management System)/Application Software
Types of Intranet
 Corporate Intranet: A corporate intranet is the main platform for
internal communication and cooperation inside a firm. It gives
employees access to internal materials, including corporate news,
guidelines, and records.
 Departmental Intranet: Departmental intranets are made to meet
the needs of certain teams or departments inside an organization. They
provide specialized features and resources to meet the demands of a
certain department, such as sales, marketing, or human resources.
 Enterprise Intranet: An enterprise intranet connects multiple
organizations or subsidiaries within a larger corporate structure. It
provides a platform for sharing information, resources, and knowledge
across different entities.
Virtual Private Intranet (VPN): Remote workers can safely access an
intranet's internal resources via a Virtual Private Network (VPN). The data
transmission between the remote user and the intranet server is encrypted
when a VPN establishes a secure connection over the internet.
Extranet-Enabled Intranet: An extranet-enabled intranet extends access to
external parties, such as clients, partners, or vendors, to specific intranet
sections with proper authorization. This type of intranet allows external
stakeholders to collaborate, access shared documents or project information,
and participate in discussions while maintaining control over the information
they can access.
Cloud-Based Intranet: A cloud-based intranet is accessed via web browsers
or specific apps and is hosted on a cloud computing platform. It provides
scalability, flexibility, and remote access options. Intranets built on the cloud do
not require on-site infrastructure or maintenance.
COMPUTER VIRUS
A computer virus is a program which can harm our device and
files and infect them for no further use. When a virus program is
executed, it replicates itself by modifying other computer
programs and instead enters its own coding. This code infects a
file or program and if it spreads massively, it may ultimately
result in crashing of the device.
TYPES OF VIRUS
Boot Sector Virus – It is a type of virus that infects the boot sector of floppy
disks or the Master Boot Record (MBR) of hard disks. The Boot sector
comprises all the files which are required to start the Operating system of the
computer.
Direct Action Virus – When a virus attaches itself directly to a .exe or .com
file and enters the device while its execution is called a Direct Action Virus.
Resident Virus – A virus which saves itself in the memory of the computer
and then infects other files and programs when its originating program is no
longer working.
Multipartite Virus – A virus which can attack both, the boot sector and the
executable files of an already infected computer is called a multipartite virus.
Overwrite Virus – One of the most harmful viruses, the overwrite virus can
completely remove the existing program and replace it with the malicious code
by overwriting it.
Polymorphic Virus – Spread through spam and infected websites, the
polymorphic virus are file infectors which are complex and are tough to detect.
File Infector Virus – As the name suggests, it first infects a single file and
then later spreads itself to other executable files and programs. The main
source of this virus are games and word processors.
Spacefiller Virus – It is a rare type of virus which fills in the empty spaces of
a file with viruses. It is known as cavity virus. It will neither affect the size of
the file nor can be detected easily.
CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRUS
 They can be spread through various means, such as email attachments,
infected software downloads, and USB drives.
 They can hide themselves on a computer, making them difficult to
detect and remove.
 They can cause harm to a computer's operating system, files, and
programs.
 Some viruses are designed to steal personal information, such as login
credentials or credit card numbers.
 Some viruses can be used to remotely control an infected computer,
part of a botnet.
 Some viruses are designed to spread to as many computers as
possible in order to cause widespread damage.
ANTI VIRUS SOFTWARE
Antivirus software is a program that searches for,
detects, prevents, and removes software infections that
can harm your computer.
This software is intended to be used as a preventative measure
against cyber dangers, keeping them from entering your computer
and causing problems. Antivirus is available for free as well. Anti-
virus software that is available for free only provides limited virus
protection, whereas premium anti-virus software offers more
effective security. For example Avast, Kaspersky, etc.