Smart Building

PRESENTING ORGANIZATION
Technology
Acknowledgement & Disclaimer
▪ Acknowledgement: “This material is based upon work supported by the U.S.
Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
(EERE), Building Technologies Office (BTO) Award Number DE-EE0009703.”

▪ Disclaimer: “The views expressed herein do not necessarily represent the

views of the U.S. Department of Energy or the United States Government.”

2 Module 1
 Module 1
Fundamentals of Building Mechanical and Energy Systems,
and Building Systems Integration
 Smart Buildings with Fundamentals

• Building heat transfer

• Psychometrics, thermal comfort 9
6
• Indoor air quality (IAQ), ventilation 7 9
9
and other IEQ factors
• Fenestration and lighting systems 6 9
1 3
• Heating and cooling equipment 9
2 7
• Heating and cooling loads 4
6
8
• Building energy analysis 9
• Utility bill
6 7
• Occupant behavior 9 5

4 Module 1
Outline

• Building heat transfer

• Psychometrics, thermal comfort
• Indoor air quality (IAQ), ventilation and other IEQ factors
• Fenestration and lighting systems
• Heating and cooling equipment
• Heating and cooling loads
• Building energy analysis
• Utility bill
• Occupant behavior

5 Module 1
Building Heat Transfer
Summary: Building Heat Transfer

• Definition and 3 modes of heat transfer

• Building heat transfer
▪ Examples of common heat loss
▪ Building envelope
▪ Conduction heat transfer
• Parallel/series heat transfer
• Thermal conductivity

▪ Convection heat transfer

• Free convection
• Forced convection

▪ Radiation heat transfer

• Shape factors
• Radiation heat exchange

▪ Evaporation and moisture transfer

7 Module 1
Heat Transfer
• What is heat transfer?
▪ Heat transfer is the transfer of thermal energy due to a spatial temperature difference.
• The 3 modes of heat transfer are:
▪ Conduction: the transfer of thermal energy by intermolecular interaction. Results from
molecular level kinetic energy transfer.
▪ Convection: the sum of thermal energy transfer by intermolecular interaction (conduction)
and thermal energy transfer by bulk fluid motion (advection). Results from large-scale motion
of a fluid.
▪ Radiation: the net transfer of thermal energy that occurs due to the exchange of thermal
radiation between two or more bodies. Thermal radiation is energy in the form of
electromagnetic radiation emitted by matter due to its temperature.

8 Module 1
 Building Heat Transfer (1)

• Three modes:
▪ Heat conduction
▪ Heat convection
▪ Heat radiation

Source: [Link]

9 Module 1
 Building Heat Transfer (2)

Three modes:
▪ Heat conduction
▪ Heat convection
▪ Heat radiation

Source:
[Link]
through-the-building_fig2_338208869

10 Module 1
 Examples of Common Heat Loss (1)
Infrared image[1]: Original ventilator image:

Heat Loss at Roof Ventilation

The hottest area

Figure 1

Color bar of temperature

Heat Loss at Building Entrance

The hottest area

Figure 2
Cold shadow
[1] [Link]

11
11 Module 1
 Examples of Common Heat Loss (2)

• Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) visible and Infrared (IR) images of a building

Hot spot

Figure 3 Cold spot

12
12 Module 1
Examples of Common Heat Loss (3):

• UAV-based Visible and IR Images of a Residential Building in Central Florida

13 Module 1
Building Envelope – Example 1

14 Module 1
 Building Envelope – Example 2

15 Module 1
Conduction Heat Transfer
Heat transfers from hot to cold:
𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑄ሶ = −𝑘𝐴
Δ𝑥

𝑇2 − 𝑇1 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑄ሶ = − =−
Δ𝑥 Τ 𝑘𝐴 𝑅

Δ𝑥
𝑅= is called the resistance to heat transfer
𝑘𝐴

Δ𝑥
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝑅𝐴 = is called the unit thermal resistance or “R-value”
𝑘

1
𝑈≡
𝑅𝑡ℎ
is called the unit conductance or “U-value”

𝑄ሶ = −𝑈𝐴(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

16 Module 1
 Parallel / Series Heat Transfer

For Series R values – Add the values

Don’t forgot the convective/radiative resistance coefficient !!!

17 Module 1
Parallel / Series Heat Transfer (cont.) For Parallel
R values:
Add 1/R’s

18 Module 1
 Thermal Conductivity

Type Btu/(h·ft·°F) W/(m·K)

Metals - 15 – 400 10 to 240

Non-metallic - solids .02 – 2.5 .012 to 1.5

Insulation - .02 - .17 .012 to .10

Gases - .007 - .17 .004 to .1

• Learn what makes sense for

thermal conductivity values

Resource:
A.A. Abdou, I.M. Budaiwi, Comparison of Thermal Conductivity Measurements of Building Insulation
Materials under Various Operating Temperatures, Journal of Building Physics. 29 (2005) 171–184.
[Link]

19 Module 1
 Convective Heat Transfer
• Two Types of Convection
• Free Convection
• Forced Convection
• Newton’s Law of Cooling
• Assumes rate is proportional to DT
𝑄ሶ = ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛 ⋅ 𝐴 ⋅ (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑓 ) = ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛 ⋅ 𝐴 ⋅ Δ𝑇

• Where 𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑊
• hcon = convection coefficient in ℎ ⋅ 𝑓𝑡 2 ⋅ ℉ or 𝑚2 ⋅ 𝐾

• Ts = surface temperature
• Tf = fluid temperature
What is the range of the convection heat transfer coefficient for building
envelope components(wall/roof)?

20 Module 1
 Forced Convection Over Plane Surfaces
• Surface Forced Convection
Coefficients
▪ Note that rough surfaces
have ~2x the hcon

21 Module 1
Radiation Heat Transfer
• Stefan-Boltzmann Law
▪ Exhibits a T4 relationship

𝑞ሶ = 𝜎 ⋅ 𝑇 4 = 𝐸𝑏
▪ Where
• Eb is the Total Blackbody Emissive Power
•  is the Stefan-Boltzman Constant
•  = 0.1714 x 10-8 Btu/(h·ft2·°R4)
•  = 5.669 x 10-8 W/(m2·K4)`

22 Module 1
 Radiation Heat Transfer: Shape Factors

• The shape factor gives the ratio of the energy going from one
surface to another
▪ The fraction of radiation leaving diffuse surface 1 that is intercepted (but not
necessarily absorbed) by surface 2.
• Two key relationships exist among shape factors, denoted by
FFromSurface To Surface
▪ Reciprocity
• A1F12 = A2F21
▪ Sum of all shape factors for a given surface is 1
• F11 + F12 + F13 + F14 + … + F1j = 1
▪ Note that F11 = 0 unless it is concave (i.e., surfaces can “see” themselves)

23 Module 1
 Radiation Heat Transfer: Shape Factors (cont.)
Shape factors for two parallel planes Shape factors for two orthogonal surface planes

Building example: ceiling and floor Building example: wall and floor

24 Module 1
 Radiation Heat Transfer: Shape Factors (cont.)
Shape factors for two parallel planes
Shape factors for two orthogonal surfaces planes

Building example: wall and floor

Building example: ceiling and floor

25 Module 1
 Radiation Heat Transfer: Radiative Exchange

• Heat exchange between 2 surfaces

𝐴1 (𝜎𝑇14 − 𝜎𝑇24 )
𝑄ሶ =
𝜌1 1 𝜌 𝐴
+ + 2 1
𝜀1 𝐹12 𝜀2 𝐴2

• If the surfaces are close together, opaque, and parallel,

F12=1 and A1=A2=A
𝐴(𝜎𝑇14 − 𝜎𝑇24 )
𝑄ሶ =
1 1
+ −1
𝜀1 𝜀2

26 Module 1
Evaporation and Moisture Transfer
• In hot and humid climates, moisture must be dealt with
• Condensation within a building causes mold
• Vapor barriers are used to keep the moist air next to the warmer
surfaces.
▪ Condensation ruins some insulation
▪ Condensation may cause health problems

• Vapor barriers are being studied to determine if they should even be

used in hot and humid climates

27 Module 1
 Moisture Transfer
• Fick’s Law
𝜕𝐶
𝑚ሶ 𝑤 = −𝐷 ⋅ 𝐴 ⋅
𝜕𝑥
▪ D is the diffusivity
▪ A is the area through which diffusion occurs
𝜕𝐶
▪ is the concentration gradient of water vapor
𝜕𝑥

𝑚ሶ 𝑤 = −ℎ𝑚 ⋅ 𝐴 ⋅ (𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶𝑓 )

• Convective Mass Transfer

▪ hm is the convective mass transfer coefficient
28 Module 1
Psychrometrics
Summary: Psychrometric Chart

• Elements of psychrometric chart and climate classification

• Properties of mixture of dry air and water vapor
• Psychrometric chart
▪ Sensible heating/cooling
▪ Latent cooling
• HVAC system psychrometric analysis

30 Module 1
Psychrometric Chart

• Dry-bulb temperature
• Wet-bulb temperature
• Humidity ratio
• Relative humidity
• Dew point temperature
• Enthalpy
• Specific Volume

31 Module 1
Psychrometric Chart – Climates
• Climate Classifications
▪ Hot-humid
▪ Warm-humid

Absolute Humidity
▪ Hot-dry
▪ Warm-dry
▪ Moderate
▪ Cool

Dry bulb Temperature

32 Module 1
Psychrometrics
• HVAC involves mixture of dry air and water vapor – moist air
▪ What is dry bulb temperature (tdb)
▪ What is humidity ratio (w)?
▪ What is relative humidity (RH)?
▪ What is dew point temperature (tdp)?
▪ What is wet bulb temperature (twb)?
▪ How to calculate enthalpy (h)?

33 Module 1
Psychrometric Properties

34 Module 1
Psychrometrics – Dry Bulb Temperature
• What is the Dry bulb temperature (tdb)
▪ Air temperature you would measure with thermometer
▪ Strictly speaking, must be perfectly dry sensor + shielded from sun, etc.

35 Module 1
Psychrometrics – Humidity Ratio

• What is the humidity ratio (W)?

▪ Mass of water vapor divided by the mass of dry air. The humidity ratio (W) is
used to express the mass of water vapor per unit mass of dry air

𝑚𝑤
𝑤=
𝑚𝑑𝑎

36 Module 1
Psychrometrics – Relative Humidity

• What is relative humidity (RH)?

▪ RH is the mole fraction (or percent) of water vapor present in the air relative
to the mole fraction of air that is completely saturated with moisture at a given
temperature. This ratio is also the partial pressure of the water vapor (pw)
relative to the partial pressure of water vapor when the air is saturated (psat).

Question: Air with 100% RH and Tdb=50°F –OR – 70% RH and Tdb =70°F. Which is wetter?

37 Module 1
Psychrometrics – Wet-bulb Temperature
• What is the wet-bulb air temperature (twb)?
▪ The wet-bulb air temperature is determined by placing a thermometer bulb
that is covered with a completely wetted wick in an airstream. The
evaporation rate and corresponding cooling effect noted by the depression of
the wet bulb relative to the dry-bulb temperature provides an indication of the
moisture level in the air. At 100% relative humidity, the wet-bulb temperature
is equal to the air temperature (dry-bulb temperature) and is lower at lower
humidity.

T2 is adiabatic saturation temperature or “thermodynamic wet-bulb

[Link] temperature”.

38 Module 1
Psychrometrics – Dewpoint Temperature
• What is dewpoint temperature (tdp)?
▪ The dew-point temperature can be determined by measuring the temperature
of a surface when moisture begins to condense. The dew-point temperature
also corresponds to the saturation temperature or the temperature when RH
is 100%.

𝑇𝑑𝑝 = 100.45 + 33.193𝛼 + 2.19𝛼 2 + 0.1707𝛼 3 + 1.2063𝑝𝑤

0.1984 ℉

𝑝𝑤 : partial pressure of water vapor

𝛼 = 𝑙𝑛𝑝𝑤

39 Module 1
Psychrometrics - Enthalpy
• How to calculate enthalpy (h)?
▪ At 0°F (–18°C), hw=1,061 Btu/lb (2468 kJ/kg) and ha= 0 Btu/lb (0 kJ/kg). The
specific heat of air is 0.24 Btu/lb·°F [1 kJ/(kg · K)] and of water vapor is
0.444 Btu/lb·°F [1.9 kJ/(kg · K)]. For moist air at dry bulb temperature (td) and
humidity ratio (W):

Air
ℎ𝑑𝑎 = ℎ𝑎0 + 𝐶𝑝𝑎 𝑡 = 0 + 0.24𝑇d

Water vapor

ℎ𝑔 = ℎ𝑔,𝑟𝑒𝑓 + 𝐶𝑝𝑤 t = 1061.2 + 0.444Td

In the United States, the current convention is to set base values at 0°F (–18°C)
and compute the values at other temperatures.

40 Module 1
 Psychrometric Isolines

Absolute Humidity

Drybulb Temp.
41 Module 1
Psychrometric Processes

• The psychrometric chart is

Humidification
a great way to illustrate
heating and cooling
processes
Sensible Cooling Sensible Heating

Dehumidification
42 Module 1
 Sensible Heating/Cooling
• Sensible Heating (A to B)

• Sensible Cooling (B to A)
▪ This is cooling/heating air without
changing its moisture content
(without adding or removing water)

▪ On the other hand, the air may seem

less/more humid once it changes
A B
its dry bulb temperature

▪ Absolute humidity does not change,

but relative humidity does

43 Module 1
 Heating/Cooling Example

• If we heat 70°F at 50% RH to

90°F without adding moisture,
what is the new RH?
▪ Answer: 25.98%
A B

• What if we cool to 55°F

instead?
▪ Answer: 84.85%

44 Module 1
Latent Cooling
• Latent heat
▪ Heat released during a process
that occurs without change in
temperature (e.g., just removing
water vapor)

B
A
45 Module 1
 Mixed Cooling
• Latent & Sensible Cooling
(B to A)

▪ Changes the temperature while

also changing the amount of water
vapor in the air

▪ This is what typically happens in a

HVAC system (e.g.,
condensation along the coil
surfaces if the outdoor air
temperature and humidity is high

46 Module 1
 Evaporative Cooling
• Introducing moisture into air
without adding more energy

• This reduces the dry bulb

temperature

• Increases the ‘energy’

(enthalpy) in the air – water
vapor mixture only by the
enthalpy of the liquid water that
is added to the air.

47 [Link] Module 1
HVAC System Psychrometric Analysis
• Flow diagram and states for a
central HVAC system

Q
Q

48 Module 1
 HVAC system performance calculations
• Sensible Load 𝑄ሶ 𝑆 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑠 ℎ𝑋 − ℎ𝑆

• Latent Load 𝑄ሶ 𝐿 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑠 ℎ𝑍 − ℎ𝑋
Q
Q

• Total Load Qሶ 𝑇 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑠 ℎ𝑍 − ℎ𝑆

• Economizer 𝑚ሶ 𝑠 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑟 + 𝑚ሶ 𝑣
𝑚ሶ 𝑠 𝑤𝐸 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑟 𝑤𝑍 + 𝑚ሶ 𝑣 𝑤𝐴
• Coil Load
𝑄ሶ 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑠 ℎ𝐸 − ℎ𝐶

• Reheat Energy 𝑄𝑟ℎ = 𝑚ሶ 𝑐 (ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑐 )

49 Module 1
Thermal Comfort
Summary: Thermal Comfort

• Definition of thermal comfort

• Key factors affecting thermal comfort
▪ Six major variables impact comfort
• Perception of thermal comfort (PPD & PMV)
• Local thermal discomfort
• ASHRAE comfort chart
• Relationship between loss of productivity and PPD

51 Module 1
What is Thermal Comfort?
• That condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment (definition from ASHRAE Standard 55)
▪ Why do we need to be concerned about thermal comfort?
• The brain is about 36.8°C at rest in comfort and increases to
about 37.4°C when walking and 37.9°C when jogging.
• An internal temperature less than about 28°C can lead to
serious cardiac arrhythmia and death, and a temperature
greater than 46°C can cause irreversible brain damage.
▪ How does your body regulate temperature?
• Hypothalamus, located in the brain, is the central control
organ for body temperature
• Example: If the body becomes too hot :
1. Vasodilatation – Increase of blood flow close to the skin.
The blood is cooled down!
2. Sweating!

52 Module 1
 What Factors Affect Thermal Comfort?
• Environmental Variables
▪ Air temperature
▪ Humidity
▪ Radiation
▪ Air velocity
▪ Air quality (dust, odor, smoke)
• Occupant Variables
▪ Clothing
▪ Age
▪ Gender
▪ Level of activity
▪ Skin wetness
▪ Psychology

53 Module 1
Six Major Variables Impacting Comfort
• Indoor Ambient Temperature Tiat
• Indoor Ambient Humidity RHiat
• Air Velocity vair_flow
• Mean Radiant Temperature Tmrt
• Clothing Insulation Iclo
• Physiological Activity Level M
There is a surprising level of agreement between people of different
locations and cultures on the most comfortable conditions of
temperature and humidity for the same activities and clothing levels
54 Module 1
 Quantification of Comfort Variables
• The first three variables are relatively easy to quantify

• Mean Radiant Temperature (MRT) and the comfort impact of

clothing and metabolic rate are more difficult to quantify
▪ Subjective studies have been done
▪ Fanger

55
55 Module 1
 Thermal Comfort – Direct Indices
• Dry-bulb temperature
▪ Single most important index,
▪ especially influential when RH is in the range 40-60%

• Moisture – three measures

▪ Dew point temperature: good single measure but is of limited usefulness for comfort
▪ Wet bulb temperature: useful for describing comfort conditions in regions of high
temperature and where dry-bulb has less significance
▪ Relative humidity: has no real meaning in terms of comfort unless accompanying dry-bulb
temperature is also known
(very low or very high values associated with discomfort)

• Air movement
▪ Most difficult of the direct indices to describe. It affects only convective heat exchange from
body.

56 Module 1
 Thermal Comfort – Derived Indices
a) Mean radiant temperature (MRT): surface temperature of an imaginary black
body (or enclosure) to which a person, also assumed to be a black body,
exchanges the same amount of heat by radiation as in the actual environment

b) Operative temperature (OT): uniform temperature of a radiantly black enclosure

in which an occupant exchanges the same amount of heat by radiation plus
convection as in the actual non-uniform indoor environment. Numerically, it is
close to the average of indoor dry-bulb and mean radiant temperatures

c) Effective temperature (ET): the operative temperature of an enclosure at 50%

RH that would cause the same sensible plus latent heat exchange from a
person as would the actual environment
(combines temperature and humidity in one index)
57
57 Module 1
 Body Heat & Comfort
• Thermal comfort is maintained by heat/mass transfer
• Human body generates heat (about 100 W under sedentary
conditions with body area = 1.5 to 2 m2)
• For comfort to be maintained:
• heat generated = heat loss
• Fundamental trends:
• Heat flows from body to ambient air (generally)
• Heat flow rate is proportional to temperature difference which is affected by clothing
• More layers of clothing = more insulation = less heat loss
• More activity = More heat generated
Heat and moisture
Eres
transfer through
respiration
M Metabolism

Mechanical W Eenv Heat and moisture

work transfer through clothing
and from skin

58 Module 1
 Body Heat — Metabolic Rates

Metabolic Rates: unit of “Met”

59 Module 1
 Perception of Thermal Comfort (PPD & PMV)
• Perception of Comfort is Highly Subjective
• Percent of People Dissatisfied (PPD) is used to quantify satisfactory
comfort
▪ Scale ranges from -3 (cold) to +3 (hot)
• Predicted Mean Vote (PMV)
▪ A method to determine the percent of people dissatisfied based on measured
parameters
• Considerable debate on this
• Fanger pioneered this work in Denmark
• Data was taken with cold climate occupants
▪ At a PMV of 0 (ideal) about 5% of the occupants are dissatisfied (at least ±2 vote)
-3 Cold -0 Neutral
-2 Cool +1 Slightly warm
-1 Slightly cool +2 Warm
0 Neutral +3 Hot

60 Module 1
 Perception of Thermal Comfort (PPD & PMV) – (cont.)
• Predicted Mean Vote (PMV): ask thermal sensation and if comfortable
Note: With experimental uncertainty in
Acceptable PMV being 0.5, even when PMV =0,
comfort range one can expect PPD =10%, i.e., up to
10% of the occupants may be
uncomfortable
Method widely used in studies
investigating tradeoffs between energy
use and human comfort

PPD as a function of PMV

Fraction “comfortable” is those who vote in the range from -0.5 to +0.5.

61 Module 1
 Local Thermal Discomfort
• Drafts
▪ Unwanted local cooling or heating on the body

• Thermal radiation asymmetry

▪ Warm ceiling and cold windows

• Vertical air temperature differences

▪ Common example is warm around the head while being cold at the feet

• Floor surface temperature

62 Module 1
 ASHRAE Standard 55 — Comfort Chart
• ASHRAE Standard 55 specifies a thermal environment that is acceptable to at
least 80 percent of the occupants.
• Table below shows the optimal operative temperature and the acceptable range
for light sedentary activity at 50 percent relative humidity and at mean airspeed
TABLE 3.5
<=0.15 m/s (30
Optimal Operative ft/min),andfor
Temperature the indicated
Acceptable Range for Lightlevels
Sedentaryof clothing
Activity at 50% insulation.
Relative Humidity and at Mean Airspeed ≤ 0.15 m/s (30 ft/min)

Season Typical Clothing Icl Optimum Operative Acceptable

[clo] Temperature Range
Winter Heavy slacks, long-sleeve shirt, 0.9 22°C 20–23.5°C
and sweater
71°F 68–75°F
Summer Light slacks and short-sleeve shirt 0.5 24.5°C 23–26°C
76°F 73–79°F
Minimal 0.05 27°C 26–29°C
81°F 79–84°F
Source: Courtesy of ASHRAE, Standard 55-2013: Thermal Environmental Conditions for
Human Occupancy, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Atlanta, GA, 1992. With permission.
63 Module 1
 ASHRAE Comfort Chart Ranges
Valid for:
• Sedentary or slightly active person (1 to 1.3 met)
• Summer: light slacks & short sleeve shirt (0.5 clo)
• Winter: Heavy slacks, long sleeve shirt & sweater
or jacket (1.0 clo)
• Air motion: < 30 ft/min in winter | < 50 ft/min in
summer
• No direct
For different clo solar
values and met
or other values between 1.2 -3, ASHRAE Standard 55-2013
radiation
recommends that the comfort
When application operative
conditions are temperature be use
not standard, determined as:
the following equation
Top,comf =27.2-5.9  clo-3.0  (1.0+clo)  (M-1.2) o C (3.20 SI)
Top,comf =81.0-10.6  clo-5.4  (1.0+clo)  (M-1.2) o F (3.20 IP)
For example:
where clo=clothing insulation, and M=metabolic value
• For each 0.1 clo increase, decrease the comfort
zone borders by 1 °F and vice versa

Note: x axis temperature is Operative, not dry bulb

64 Module 1
 Relationship between Loss of Productivity and PPD

Illustration of how loss of indoor office occupant productivity tracks PPD.

Field study results (Roelofsen, 2001)
65 Module 1
IAQ, Ventilation and Other
IEQ Factors

Module 1
Summary: IAQ, Ventilation and Other IEQ Factors

• Indoor Environment Quality (IEQ)

• Elements of IEQ
• Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
• ASHRAE Standards - Comfort / IAQ
• Indoor Air Quality and Ventilation
• Air Quality Contaminants and Sick Building Syndrome
• Air Quality Contaminants and Mold
• Indoor Environmental Quality and Visual Comfort

67 Module 1
 Indoor Environment Quality (IEQ)
• What is Indoor Environment Quality?
▪ Thermal Comfort
▪ Indoor Air Quality
▪ Other Indoor Environment Issues
• Visual, Acoustic, Access to daylight, etc.
• Why do we need to care?
▪ 90 % of our lives are spent indoors
▪ 70 % of US work force (90 million)
▪ IEQ → Productivity
▪ IEQ → Health
• Well-being in the built environment
[Link]
68 Module 1
 Elements of IEQ (Traditional Definition)
• Indoor air quality (IAQ)
▪ Pollutant source control
▪ Ventilation IAQ
▪ Filtration
• Thermal comfort
▪ Indoor conditions Thermal
▪ Occupant controllability Virus risk comfort
• Visual comfort
▪ Lighting quality IEQ
▪ Views
▪ Occupant controllability
• Acoustic comfort
▪ Noise Acoustic Visual
comfort comfort
▪ Privacy

Adopted From Kolderup, 2009 Note: Virus risk was added recently

69 Module 1
 Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
• IAQ is related to how well indoor air satisfies the three basic
requirements for human occupancy:
(a) thermal acceptability;
(b) maintenance of normal concentrations of respiratory gases; and
(c) dilution and removal of contaminants to levels below health or odor
discomfort thresholds.

70 Module 1
 ASHRAE Standards - Comfort / IAQ
• ASHRAE Standard 55 specifies
a thermal comfort environment.
• ASHRAE Standard 62 specifies
the indoor air quality - i.e., the
amount of fresh air required
• Both of these impact comfort
and energy cost
• There are arguments with both
standards

71 Module 1
 Indoor Air Quality and Ventilation
• Air Quality is getting much attention
• Sick Building Syndrome inspires lawsuits
• The challenge exists to increase the “fresh air” in the building while
decreasing the energy use.
• ASHRAE Standards 62.1 and 62.2 define requirements
• COVID-19

72 Module 1
 Ventilation for acceptable
ASHRAE Standard 62.1 indoor air quality
Purpose:
1. Specify minimum
ventilation rates and
other measures
intended to provide
IAQ that is
acceptable to human
occupants and that
minimizes adverse
2019
health effects
2016
2. Intended for
regulatory application
to new buildings and
additions
3. Guide the
improvement of IAQ
in existing buildings

73 Module 1
 Air Quality Contaminants and Sick Building Syndrome
• Inadequate ventilation
▪ ASHRAE Standard 62.1
• Chemical contaminants from indoor sources
▪ Adhesives, carpeting upholstery, manufactured wood products, copy machines, pesticides,
and cleaning agents may emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
• Chemical contaminants from outdoor sources
▪ Pollutants from motor vehicle exhaust; plumbing vents, and building exhausts (e.g.,
bathrooms and kitchens)
• Biological contaminants
▪ Bacteria, molds, pollen
• All contaminants must be controlled in buildings
▪ Dilution is the primary strategy
▪ Air cleaning can be done
• Controlling contaminants adds to the energy cost of operating the building

74 Module 1
 Air Quality Contaminants and Mold
Mold Risk • Common Contaminants - Mold
▪ Allergic illness
▪ Asthma
▪ Infection
▪ Toxic effects

Mold Control
▪ Humidity control
▪ Typical air handler unit (AHU)
• Cooling to a certain temperature to
remove required amount of moisture and
reheat
▪ Other equipment
• Desiccant dehumidification system
[Link]

75 Module 1
 Indoor Environmental Quality and Visual Comfort

• Visual comfort is usually defined

through a set of criteria based on
the level of light in a room, the
balance of contrasts, the color
‘temperature’ and the absence or
presence of glare [1]
Ambient Lighting Task Lighting

• Factors that impact visual comfort

• Orientation
• Fenestration/Windows
• Artificial lights
• Daylighting

Accent Lighting Decorative Lighting

[1] [Link]
76 Module 1
Fenestration and Lighting
Systems

Module 1
Summary: Fenestration and Lighting Systems

• Fenestration Definition
• Fenestration Classification
▪ Windows
▪ Smart Windows
• Daylighting and Lighting System
▪ Lighting Systems Design Decisions
▪ Lighting for Human Needs
▪ Interactions of Light
▪ Electric Light Source Groups
• Case Study
78 Module 1
 Fenestration Definition
• Fenestration serves multiple functions
▪ Provides natural light,
▪ Natural ventilation and/or
▪ Outdoor views

• Fenestration components
▪ A glazing material, typically glass or plastic;
Word clouds of scattered areas of the
▪ Indoor, outdoor or built-in shading devices current research on fenestration system [1]
such as louvred blinds, roller shades, awnings, and metal grills; and
▪ Framing, mullions, dividers, and muntin bars

[1] Feng. F, et al. "A critical review of fenestration/window system design methods for high performance buildings." Energy and Buildings 248 (2021): 111184.

79
79 Module 1
 Fenestration Elements

Types of external shading devices [2]

[1] Feng. F, et al. "A critical review of fenestration/window system design methods for
high performance buildings." Energy and Buildings 248 (2021): 111184.
[2] [Link]

80 Module 1
 Windows Components of solar heat gain with a double-pane window

• Window and glazing choices

should be considered holistically
• Issues to consider include:
▪ Heat gains and losses
▪ Visual requirements (privacy, glare,
view)
▪ Shading and sun control
▪ Thermal comfort
▪ Condensation control
▪ Acoustic control
▪ Daylighting
▪ etc.

81 Module 1
 Windows Performance Metrics
• Windows have a major impact on
energy use in homes and larger
buildings
• Four measures of window
performance
▪ U-Value of the window and frame
• Typical aluminum frame single glazed
window:1.3 Btu/(h·ft²·°F) or 7.4 W/m².K
• Multi-paned, high-performance window
with low-emissivity coatings and insulated
frames: 0.2 Btu/ (h·ft²·°F) or 1.1 W/m².K
▪ Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC)
of the window Low SHGC and high VT
▪ Visible Transmittance(VT) • Minimize the cooling requirement
• Improve indoor visibility
▪ Air leakage

82 Module 1
 Smart Windows
• Thermochromic Window: transmissivity varies with temperature
• Electrochromic Window: thin-film coatings applied to a glass or plastic that can
change optical and thermal properties of glazing when a small voltage is
applied

Pleotint window on left darkened to neutral-gray tint as heat load

increased. On the right, the window has returned to clearest state
as direct sunlight decreased. Credit: PPG Industries
[Link] [Link]
system-with-pleotints-sunlight-responsive-interlayer
83
83 Module 1
 Daylighting and Lighting System

If we control light, we control:

▪ How people feel
▪ How people perceive a space
▪ Where people go

Good lighting design is a

study of where light ends up.

[Link]

84 Module 1
 Lighting Systems Design Decisions
• Light differs from other design elements because the human response is
instinctual versus learned or conditioned
• Lighting is responsible for Mood (active vs. relaxed; intimate vs. clinical)
• Lighting as Instruction (way finding; location/geography; time of day)
• Every lighting “mood” has a corresponding light intensity, light color and
light texture

Source: AIA’s Architect’s Guide to Building Performance: Integrating performance simulation in the design process 2019

85 Module 1
 Four Relationships – Understanding of Where Light Is Most Effective
• Adaptation: Humans have the ability to adapt to function under vastly different
light levels
▪ Example: High-noon sunlight is tens of thousands of times brighter than full-moonlight, yet
people can read under both.
▪ Excess light is wasted light as the user's visual system works to even out their experience
• Brightness: The subjective judgment of lighted objects in an environment.
▪ Brightness is the product of contrast. Objects are judged in relation to their surrounding.
▪ “Bright” objects need only be brighter than their neighbors.
• Phototropism: Humans notice bright things and ignore dark things
▪ A few lighted objects can define the general feeling of a space (if they are in plain sight)
• Vertical Vision: Humans tend to notice what is right in front of them.
▪ Vertical surfaces (walls and objects) do more to define the impression of a space than the
floor.

86
86 Module 1
 Lighting for Human Needs
• Light: an electromagnetic radiation that stimulates the retina in the
eye
• Human eye: responds to wavelength between 380 - 770
nanometers

87
87 Module 1
 Interactions of light
• Lumens
• Illuminance
• Luminance

88
88 Module 1
 Electric Light Source Groups
• Light Source Families (most common):
▪ Incandescent/Halogen
▪ Fluorescent
▪ High Intensity Discharge (HID)
▪ Light Emitting Diodes (LED)

• Other Groups (less common):

▪ Cold Cathode & Neon
▪ Electrodeless Fluorescent
▪ Electroluminescence

89
89 Module 1
 Top Lighting
• Admits light from above
▪ Behaves very different from side lighting
• Control type
▪ Passive system
• Usually passive with diffusing medium
▪ Active system
• Mirror system within skylight that tracks the sun
• Designed to increase the performance,
reflects light down channeling
• Reduces thermal gain during summer months
• Examples: Skylights, Roof Monitors,
Clerestory/Clearstory, Tubular
Skylights, Light Pipes/Fiber Optic

90 Module 1
 Daylight Systems & Re-directional Devices
• Side-Light Systems
▪ Windows (clerestory, monitor, light shelf)
• Louvered Systems
▪ Vertical Shadow Angle (VSA) = Profile Angle
▪ Horizontal Shadow Angle (HSA)
▪ Shading Mask
• Two Major Benefits
▪ Glare control
▪ Redirect away from the eyes of the
occupants
• Daylight penetration
▪ Moves daylight farther into the space
• Design Considerations - Altitude, Azimuth,
Shadow Angles (most important)

91 Module 1
 Standards, Codes & Guidelines
• ASHRAE 90.1 – Limits Energy Use
▪ 2001, 2004, 2007, 2010, 2013, 2016, 2019
▪ Power: Section 8
▪ Lighting: Section 9
• Lighting Power Density
▪ Code limit on total watts allowed for a room or
building
▪ LPD Unit = Watts per Square Foot (W/ft2)
• IESNA Handbook: Lighting Design Guide
▪ Emphasizes that lighting design is NOT simply
choosing an
illuminance (footcandle) level
▪ Provides a formal system for considering various
criteria
needed for high quality lighting installations
▪ Ranks the relative importance of the criteria for
specific applications
IESNA Handbook; Figure 10-1

92 Module 1
 Lighting Facts & Figures

93 Module 1
 Case Study: First United Bank, Fredericksburg, TX
• 8,500-sf project incorporates a range of sustainability
measures. The design team implemented:
▪ a high-efficiency VRF HVAC system
▪ expansive floor-to-ceiling windows to harvest natural daylight
▪ large cantilevered overhangs to shade the structure and reduce
cooling costs
▪ first mass timber structure in nation of southern yellow pine cross-
laminated timber (CLT) panels
▪ sloping roof facilitates rain collection of as much as 250 million
gallons of water annually
▪ rooftop solar panels are designed to offset 130k kWh annually to
achieve Net Zero Energy

• Completed September 2019, client had two primary goals:

▪ to create a distinct structure that would stand out from other bank
branches in the area
▪ to create a highly sustainable building, the design team proposed
targeting net zero energy

94 [Link]
Module 1
 Case Study First United Bank, Fredericksburg, TX (cont.)
• Owner:
First United Bank
• Size: 8,5000 sf
• Construction
Cost: Confidential
• Date: Fall 2019
• Architect:
Gensler
• Services:
Mechanical,
Electrical,
Plumbing

IMAGE COURTESY
GENSLER/RYAN CONWAY

[Link]

95 Module 1
Heating and Cooling
Equipment

Module 1
Summary: Heating and Cooling Equipment

• Building Mechanical System: Examples of Systems

• Overview of HVAC Systems
▪ Primary and Secondary Building Systems
▪ Air Handling Units (AHU): Air Loop
▪ Schematic of a central HVAC system using air for space conditioning
▪ Schematic of HVAC system using air and water for space conditioning
▪ Schematic of a packaged HVAC system
▪ Terminal boxes
▪ AHU with chiller/boiler
▪ Chilled water supply (air cooled chiller)
▪ Chilled water supply (water cooled)
▪ Chiller plant (loops)

97 Module 1
 Heating and Cooling Equipment
• Building Mechanical Systems – Examples of Systems
▪ Central Plant Chilled Water Cooling Systems
• Air-cooled chillers or closed-loop cooling towers serve chillers
• Water-cooled chillers served by open-loop cooling towers
• Evaporatively-cooled chillers

Heating Systems
• Central boiler plant:
• Steam boilers
• Hot water boilers

Distribution Systems
• Air handlers with chilled water coils and/or hot water heating coils
• Fan coils
• Radiators
• Chilled beams / radiant panels

98 Module 1
 Overview of HVAC Systems
• Primary and Secondary Building Systems
• Air Handling Units (AHU): Air Loop
• Schematic of a central HVAC system using air for space conditioning
• Schematic of HVAC system using air and water for space conditioning
• Schematic of a packaged HVAC system
• Terminal boxes
• AHU with chiller/boiler
• Chilled water supply (air cooled chiller)
• Chilled water supply (water cooled)
• Chiller plant (loops)

99 Module 1
 Primary and Secondary Building Systems

100
100 Module 1
 Primary and Secondary Building Systems Modeling

Air Secondary Systems Primary Systems

Distribution

From EnergyPlus documentation

101
101 Module 1
 Air Handling Units (AHU): Air Loop

Exhaust Return
Air Air

Return
Air

Outside
Air Mixed Air Supply
Air

102 Module 1
 Schematic of a central HVAC system
using air for space conditioning

103
103 Module 1
 Schematic of HVAC system
using air and water for space conditioning

The AHU contains a heating/cooling coil

104 Module 1
 Schematic of a packaged HVAC system

105
105 Module 1
 Terminal boxes

Schematic of a constant air volume (CAV) Schematic of a fan-coil terminal box

terminal box

Reheat coil

Supply
air

Diffuser

Schematic of three variable airflow rate terminal boxes

Dampers Reheat Fan

Coil
Supply
air

Zone air Zone air

Diffuser

VAV throttling box VAV induction box VAV fan-powered box

106 Module 1
 AHU with chiller/boiler

Resource:
[Y. Fu, Z. O’Neill, Z. Yang, V. Adetola, J. Wen, L.
Ren, T. Wagner, Q. Zhu, T. Wu, Modeling and
evaluation of cyber-attacks on grid-interactive
efficient buildings, Applied Energy. 303 (2021)
117639.
[Link]

107 Module 1
 Chilled water supply (air cooled chiller)

108 Module 1
 Chilled water supply (water cooled)

Major Components:
1. Cooling Tower
2. Condensing pumps (condenser water
circulation)
3. Chiller
4. Chilled water pumps (circulation)
Image Credit: Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 2001

109 Module 1
 Chiller plant (loops)

Primary-only-single chiller Primary-only-variable flow Primary- secondary

[Link]
_Optimizing_Design_Control_of_Chilled_Water_Plants_Part_1_Chilled_Water_Distribution_System_Selection.pdf_

110 Module 1
 Heating and Cooling
Loads

111 Module 1
Summary: Heating and Cooling Loads

• Background
▪ Heat Gain vs. Heating/Cooling Loads
▪ Load vs. Peak Load
▪ Room Heat Gain Components
• Heating Loads
• Computing Peak Heating Loads
• Methods for Cooling Loads
• Cooling Loads
• Cooling Load Calculations
▪ Weather data
▪ Cooling load components
▪ Heat Balance Method
▪ CLTD/SCL/CLF method

112 Module 1
 Heat Gain vs. Heating/Cooling Loads
• What are loads and cooling loads?
▪ Heating or cooling rates that must be supplied by the heating or cooling
devices to maintain building or room air at the desired constant temperature

• What is heat gain?

▪ Heat gain is the instantaneous rate of heat gain is the rate at which heat
enters into and/or is generated within a space at a given instant.

113
113 Module 1
 Load vs. Peak Load
• Load is the heating or cooling rate that must be supplied by the heating
or cooling devices to maintain building or room air at the desired
temperature at any given time
• (Peak) Load is estimated at design conditions
• Two distinctly different needs
▪ Sizing equipment for purpose of selection (initial cost)
▪ Predicting annual energy consumption (operating cost)
• How are (peak) heating loads calculated?
▪ What heat flow factors are considered? ASHRAE method
▪ How are climatic conditions selected?
• Note: Often, practitioners leave out the word “peak” and simply use “load
calculations” to mean “peak load calculations”

114
114 Module 1
 Room Heat Gain Components
▪ Conduction through exterior envelope
elements
• Wall, roof, window…
▪ Conduction through interior envelope
(partition, ceiling, floor…)
▪ Solar radiation
• Through window
• On exterior wall
▪ Internal heat gains
• Lighting
• Equipment
• Occupants
▪ Infiltration and natural ventilation

115 Module 1
 Heating Loads
▪ Duct heat loss – for warm air system only!
▪ Piping/ducting loss
• For piping systems, this heat
• Loss is generally very small
• For ducting systems, more care needed
▪ Pickup Factor
• For buildings which are intermittently heated or have a set-back schedule, the heating
system needs to be oversized so that the indoor space can “recover” quickly after set-back
• Generally given by boiler industry (15 – 25 %)
• Commonly used for residences
• No such allowance generally made for large buildings

116 Module 1
 Summary: Computing Peak Heating Loads
1. Select hourly outdoor winter design temperature
2. Select appropriate indoor design temperature
3. Calculate conduction heat loss through all envelope elements
4. Calculate total infiltration through envelope, take half that value and calculate sensible heat
gain due to infiltration if analysis is done for entire building
5. Deduce total or net heat loss
6. Calculate gross load after making allowance for ducting heat loss and piping and pickup
allowances (if appropriate)
7. Select required capacity of heating equipment

NOTE:
a) No need to explicitly consider time of day or time of year effects
b) All heat loss calculations are steady-state
c) Solar loads are neglected
d) Internal loads are neglected (but can be included on case by case basis

117
117 Module 1
 Cooling Loads
• Heat gain – rate at which heat is Heat Gain
transferred into the space

Heat Gain
Heat Extraction
▪ Solar radiation through openings Cooling Load
▪ Heat conduction through building
envelope with convection and radiation
from the inner surfaces into the space Heat On Heat Off Time
▪ Sensible heat convection and radiation
from internal objects
▪ Natural ventilation (outside air) and infiltration air
▪ Latent heat gains generated within the space

• Cooling load – rate which cooling equipment would have to remove heat to maintain T
and RH
• Heat extraction – rate which cooling equipment actually removes heat
• Note that Cooling load = Heat Extraction if T and RH are constant

118 Module 1
 Methods for Cooling Loads
• ASHRAE Fundamentals has the following methods to calculate loads
▪ Total equivalent temperature difference / time averaging (TETD/TA): 1967 ASHRAE
▪ Transfer function method (TFM): 1972 ASHRAE
▪ Cooling load temperature difference/solar cooling load/cooling load factor method
(CLTD/SCL/CLF)
• It is a one-step, simple calculation procedure developed by ASHRAE
• NOT included in the ASHRAE Fundamentals handbook (2013 version)
• Details can be found in the ASHRAE Fundamentals handbook (1997 version)
• Still useful and used by some industry practitioners

• Present methods
▪ Heat balance method (HB)
• This work is detailed in “Heating and Cooling Load Calculation Principles”
▪ Radiant Time Series (RTS)

119
119 Module 1
 Methods for Cooling Loads (cont.)
• Other methods:
▪ Finite Difference/Finite Element Method (FDM/FEM)
• Simulation programs
▪ DOE-2 can also be used as an hourly calculation method
▪ EnergyPlus is a program currently supported by DOE
• Combines DOE-2 and BLAST (from CERL)
• Adopted by industry now
• Trane (Trace)
• Carrier (HAP)

120
120 Module 1
 Cooling Loads vs. Heat Gains
Schematic relation of heat gain to cooling load
Weather Convection
Envelope, Zone Cooling
Controls
Glazing, Air Coil
Occupancy
Internal, Interior
Ventilation Radiation structure, Convection Temperature Swing
Furnishings

Time
lag
Driving Forces Heat Gain Cooling Load Heat Extraction Cooling Coil
Rate Load

• Radiation does not heat the air within the Instantaneous heat gain vs cooling
space directly; this radiant energy is mostly load. They are NOT the same!
absorbed by floors, walls and furniture etc.,
which are then cooled primarily by
convection.
• Only when the room air receives the
radiant energy by convection does this
energy become part of the cooling load.

121 Module 1
 Thermal Storage
• Thermal mass determines the
temperature time lag
▪ This impacts the relation between
the heat gain and cooling load
• The dynamic response of an
element needs to consider:
▪ Thermal storage: heat stored in
building mass and furnishings as
sensible heat
▪ Time lag: time difference between
heat gain and cooling load due to Actual cooling load and solar heat gains for light, medium, and
thermal storage effect heavy construction

122 Module 1
 Heat Gain and Storage Capacity

123
123 Module 1
 Cooling Load Calculations
• Basic Concepts – General procedure for cooling load calculations
▪ Obtain appropriate weather data and select outdoor design conditions
▪ Select indoor design conditions
▪ Obtain the characteristics of the building, building materials, components,
etc. from building plans and specifications.
▪ Determine the building location, orientation, external shading (like adjacent
buildings)
▪ Obtain a proposed schedule of lighting, occupants, internal equipment
appliances and processes that would contribute to internal thermal load
▪ Calculate the space cooling load at design conditions

124 Module 1
 Cooling Load Calculation Elements and Analysis Methods
• Weather data
• Cooling load components
• Heat Balance Method
• CLTD/SCL/CLF method

125 Module 1
 Weather data: ASHRAE climate zones

126
126 Module 1
 Weather data: design conditions
• To compute the cooling load at design conditions, need to know
▪ Outdoor design conditions
• Based on annual
percentiles and
cumulative
frequency
of occurrence,
e.g., 0.4%, 99.6%
(of whole year)

▪ Indoor design conditions (ASHRAE Standard 55)

• Summer: 74°F to 80°F, suggested value: 75°F/63°F
• Winter: 68°F to 75°F, suggested value: 70°F

127
127 Module 1
 Cooling load components
• External
▪ Heat gain through exterior walls and roof
▪ Solar heat gain through fenestration (windows)
▪ Conductive heat gain through fenestration
▪ Heat gain through partitions & interior doors
• Internal
▪ People
▪ Electric lights
▪ Equipment and appliances
• Infiltration
▪ Air leakage and moisture migration, e.g. flow of
outdoor air into a building through cracks,
unintentional openings, normal use of exterior
doors for entrance

128 Module 1
 Cooling load components: energy balance

Heat gains/Losses
Cooling load

Total cooling load = sensible cooling load +

latent cooling load
Heat storage = Σ(sensible items) +
Σ(latent items)

129
129 Module 1
 Heat balance method
• The rigorous approach
• Requires solving of partial differential equations and often involves
iteration
• Radiant Time Series method is a simplified method derived from
handbook procedure
• Use heat balance equations to calculate:
▪ Surface-by-surface conductive, convective & radiative heat balance
for each room surface
▪ Convective heat balance for the room air
• Calculation process
▪ Find the inside surface temperatures of building structures due to heat balance
▪ Calculate the sum of heat transfer from these surfaces and from internal loads

130 Module 1
 Heat Balance Method: Surface Energy Balance
Energy/Heat balance for an exterior surface element
Solar insolation

Conduction
Convection from through wall
ambient air

Thermal radiation from

exterior surfaces Outside
wall surface

Energy/Heat balance for an interior surface element

𝑸ሶ 𝒘 + 𝑸ሶ 𝒔𝒐𝒍 − 𝑸ሶ 𝒔,𝒄 − 𝑸ሶ 𝒔,𝒓 = 𝟎

From EnergyPlus document

131 Module 1
 Heat Balance Method: Zone Heat Balance
Zone Heat Balance:

See details for heat balance method in ASHRAE

Fundamentals handbook 2009, 2013, 2017, 2021

132 Module 1
 CLTD/SCL/CLF Method
• It is a one-step, simple calculation procedure developed by ASHRAE
• Can be done manually

CLTD: cooling load temperature difference

SCL: solar cooling load
CLF: cooling load factor

133 Module 1
Building Energy Analysis

Module 1
Summary: Building Energy Analysis

• Energy Consumption Analysis Methods

▪ Degree day-based Method
▪ Bin Method
▪ Hourly Simulation
• based on TMY or actual weather data
• eQuest, EnergyPlus, TRNSYS, HAP, Trace700, etc.
▪ Data-driven Inverse Method

• Common Building Energy Analysis Software

135 Module 1
 Building Energy Analysis
Energy consumption analysis
methods:
▪ Degree day-based Method
▪ Bin Method
▪ Hourly simulation based on TMY or
actual weather data
• eQuest,
• EnergyPlus,
• TRNSYS,
• HAP,
• Trace700, etc.

• Data-driven Inverse Method

136 Module 1
 BEA – Summary of Methods

ARMAL: Autoregressive Moving Average model

137 Module 1
 BEA – Forward and Inverse Problems
• Forward problems use calculations to predict the performance
▪ Physics-based
• Inverse problems use performance data to predict the response of the system
▪ Data-driven

Table from Wei, et al. 2017

138
138 Module 1
 BEA: Inverse Modeling Examples
• Inverse modeling (Data-driven Example: Bayesian Network (BN) model
model)
▪ Change-point Regression model
▪ Gaussian Process Regression model
▪ Gaussian Mixture Regression model AHU
Economizer
▪ Artificial Neural Network(ANN) model
▪ Bayesian Network (BN) model
▪ Autoregressive with external inputs (ARX) Probability
model
▪ State Space (SS) model BN Model
▪ Subspace State Space (N4S) model
▪ Recurrent Neural Network (RNN) based
Deep Learning
▪ Etc.

139 Module 1
 Comparisons: HVAC hot water energy consumption (1)

Change Point Model Gaussian Process Model * Zhang et al. 2015

140 Module 1
 Comparisons: HVAC hot water energy consumption (cont)

• All the differences are small.

• Considering the simplicity of the
change-point method, this
method probably is the most
appropriate for this case study
in terms of accuracy vs. efforts
spent for the modeling.
• This is well aligned to current
practice in building
measurement and verification
industry.

GPR: Gaussian Process Regression; GMR: Gaussian Mixture Regression; ANN: Artificial Neutral network
R2 Coefficient of determination; RMSE Root mean squared error;
CV-RMSE Coefficient of variation of the root mean; NMBE Normalized mean bias error. * Zhang et al. 2015
141 Module 1
 Building Energy Analysis – Common Software
Publicly
Engine Interface Free
Funded
EnergyPro
DOE-2.1e
VisualDOE
Autodesk GBS (i.e., Ecotect)
DOE-2.2
eQUEST  
Bentley Hevacomp and AECOsim Energy Simulator

EnergyPlus DesignBuilder
OpenStudio  
Simergy  
HAP HAP
Apache IES-VE
TRACE TRACE
TRNSYS TRNSYS 
See IBPSA – USA for a complete list of Building Energy Software Tools: [Link]

142 Module 1
Utility Bill

Module 1
Summary: Utility Bill

• How Does a Utility Company Charge?

• Demand Importance

144 Module 1
 How Does a Utility Company Charge?
• Total monthly Monthly electric utility charges for a typical commercial building

energy usage
(metered)

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 = 𝑭𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 + 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 ∗ 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 + 𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒌𝑫𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅 ∗ 𝑫𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆

145 Module 1
 How Utility Company Charges – Example 1
▪ Fixed monthly meter charge: $75
▪ Total electricity consumption: 100,000 kW-hr
▪ Peak demand (maximum power usage): 500 kW at peak
▪ Demand charge: $12/kW
▪ Energy charge: $0.05/kW-hr
▪ What is the total cost for this month?

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 ∗ 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∗ 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒

$75 + 100,000 * $0.05 + 500 * $12 = $11,075

146
146 Module 1
 Demand Importance – Duck Curve

Net load is the difference between load

forecast (including building load) and
expected electricity production from
various generation resources.

Opportunity and challenges for building load

shifting, load shedding, etc.
[Link]
147 Module 1
Occupant Behavior

Module 1
Summary: Occupant Behavior

• Background
• Occupant Behavior in Buildings
• Occupant-Centric Controls
▪ Occupant-Centric Controls – Example1
▪ Occupant-Centric Controls – Example2

149 Module 1
 The Complexity of Human-Centered Buildings-to-Urban System

*Ramaswami et al. Science 20 May 2016

150
150 Module 1
 Occupant Behavior in Buildings
• Occupant behavior (OB) in buildings should not be ignored
▪ OB is a major source for building energy discrepancy and performance gap
▪ Behavior changes, usually at no or low cost, have demonstrated from 5 to
20% energy savings in buildings

US Europe China

35
3 times
Number of houses 30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Energy consumption [kWh/m² year]

Measured vs Design EUIs of Energy consumption 35 apartments in Summer air-conditioning electricity consumption
100 LEED buildings in USA Copenhagen, EU of residential building Beijing, China
(Turner and Frankel, 2008) (Andersen et al, 2012) (Yan et al, 2015 )

151
151 Module 1
 Occupant-Centric Controls
Occupant-Centric Control (OCC):
An indoor climate control approach whereby
occupancy, occupant behavior and occupant
comfort/health information are used in the
operational sequences of building systems

Occupan Micro- Terminal VAV

cy controller Box Box
Sensors Controller

152 Module 1
 Occupant-Centric Controls – Example1
HVAC Energy Savings Baseline and Control Scenarios

Baseline
No Occupancy Sensing
Assumed Assumed Assumed

Advanced I
Occupancy Presence

Assumed Assumed Assumed

Advanced II
Occupant Counting

Assumed Assumed Assumed

153
153 Module 1
 Occupant-Centric Controls – Example2
Key Takeaways
HVAC Energy Savings Ratios of Four Commercial Buildings (Counting Scenario)
• Large Hotel (LH)
achieves the highest
energy-savings ratio,
followed by MO, PS, and
LO.

• The HVAC energy

savings ratio is generally
higher in colder climate
zones and marine
climate zones.

• In general, OBC has a

promising potential to
achieve a 30% HVAC
energy-savings ratio
nationwide.
MO: Medium-sized office building; LO: Large-sized office building; LH: Large hotel; PS: Primary school
* Pang et al, 2021

154 Module 1
 References
• McQuiston, F. C., Parker, J. D., and Spitler, J. D., 2005. Heating, Ventilating
and Air Conditioning, 6th Ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY.
• Kavanaugh, S. O., 2006. HVAC Simplified. ASHRAE.
• T. Agami Reddy, Jan F. Kreider, Peter S. Curtiss, Ari Rabl. 2016 Heating and
Cooling of Buildings: Principles and Practice of Energy Efficient Design, Third
Edition., CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL.
• J. W. Mitchell and J. E. Braun. 2012. Principles of HVAC in Buildings
• ASHRAE Handbooks.

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