3.

THERMAL COMFORT, VENTILATION AND

AIRCONDITIONING

3.1 Introduction
Dwellings were constructed for protection from the elements. In ancient times, the construction
was conditioned on the materials local to the site as well as being climate responsive

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3.2 Heat Transfer in Buildings
Heat transfer, also referred to simply as heat, is the movement of thermal energy from one thing
to another thing of different temperature. These objects could be two solids, a solid and a liquid
or gas, or even within a liquid or gas. There are three different ways the heat can transfer:
conduction (through direct contact), convection (through fluid movement), or radiation (through
electromagnetic waves). Heat transfer occurs when the temperatures of objects are not equal to
each other and refers to how this difference is changed to an equilibrium state.

The flow of heat is happening all the time from any physical entity to objects surrounding it. Heat
flows constantly from your body to the air surrounding you.

Heat transfer is the transfer of thermal energy between objects of different temperatures. In
building science, the focus is on temperature differences between the interior and exterior of the
building. The element that separates indoors from outdoors is the building enclosure (or building
envelope) e.g. Walls, roofs, floors, and fenestration (i.e., windows, doors, skylights).
Where there are temperature differences between internal spaces, heat transfer will also occur.
The element that separates indoors from indoors is the partition. There are other internal heat
gains that contribute to higher temperatures in indoor environments.

The laws of heat transfer govern the rate at which heat energy must be supplied to or removed
from a building to maintain the comfort of occupants or to meet other thermal requirements of
buildings.

Conduction heat transfer is a result of molecular-level kinetic energy transfers in solids, liquids,
and gases. This is analogous electrical conduction in solids. Conduction heat flow occurs in the
direction of decreasing temperature, that is, from high T to low T. Example is heat gain through
opaque walls in summer

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Convection heat transfer is a result of larger-scale motions of a fluid, either liquid or gas. The
higher the velocity of fluid flow, the higher the rate of convection heat transfer. Also, the greater
the temperature difference the greater the heat flow. Example is when a cool wind blows over a
person’s skin and removes heat from it

Radiation heat transfer is the transport of energy by electromagnetic waves. It is the exchange
between two surfaces at different temperatures. Radiation must be absorbed by matter to produce
internal energy. Example: energy transported from the sun to the earth

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Conduction can be a complex phenomenon.

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R values are typically used for insulating materials, e.g. wall insulation materials

U values are typically used for conductive materials e.g. windows

Example - Conductive Heat Transfer

A plane wall is constructed of solid iron with thermal conductivity 70 W/moC. Thickness of the wall
is 50 mm and surface length and width is 1 m by 1 m. The temperature is 150 oC on one side of
the surface and 80 oC on the other.

The conductive heat transfer through the wall can be calculated

q = [(70 W/m oC) / (0.05 m)] [(1 m) (1 m)] [(150 oC) - (80 oC)]
= 98000 (W)
= 98 (kW)

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Example - Conductive Heat Transfer through a Furnace Wall
A furnace wall of 1 m2 consist of 1.2 cm thick stainless steel inner layer covered with 5 cm outside
insulation layer of insulation board. The inside surface temperature of the steel is 800 K and the
outside surface temperature of the insulation board is 350 K. The thermal conductivity of the
stainless steel is 19 W/(m K) and the thermal conductivity of the insulation board is 0.7 W/(m K).

The conductive heat transport through the layered wall can be calculated as

q = [(800 K) - (350 K)] (1 m2) / ([(0.012 m) / (19 W/(m K))] + [(0.05 m) / (0.7 W/(m K))])
= 6245 (W)
= 6.25 kW

Parallel-resistance heat flow

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Common Heat Transfer Coefficients of some common Building Elements

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In general, the higher the velocity of fluid flow, the higher the rate of convection heat transfer

Two kinds of convection exist: –

Natural (or free) convection: Results from density differences in the fluid caused by contact
with the surface to or from which the heat transfer occurs. Buoyancy is the main driver.
Example is the gentle circulation of air in a room caused by the presence of a solar-
warmed window or wall (no mechanical system) is a manifestation of natural/free
convection

Forced convection: Results from a force external to the problem (other than gravity or
other body forces) moves a fluid past a warmer or cooler surface. Usually much higher
velocities, driven by mechanical forces (e.g. fans). Example: Heat transfer between
cooling coils and an air stream

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Convective Heat Transfer Coefficients
Convective heat transfer coefficients (hc) depends on type of media, if its gas or liquid, and flow
properties such as velocity, viscosity and other flow and temperature dependent properties.

Typical convective heat transfer coefficients for some common fluid flow applications:

 Free Convection - air, gases and dry vapors : 0.5 - 1000 (W/(m2K))
 Free Convection - water and liquids: 50 - 3000 (W/(m2K))
 Forced Convection - air, gases and dry vapors: 10 - 1000 (W/(m2K))
 Forced Convection - water and liquids: 50 - 10000 (W/(m2K))
 Forced Convection - liquid metals: 5000 - 40000 (W/(m2K))
 Boiling Water: 3.000 - 100.000 (W/(m2K))
 Condensing Water Vapor: 5.000 - 100.000 (W/(m2K))

Example - Convective Heat Transfer

A fluid flows over a plane surface 1 m by 1 m. The surface temperature is 50oC, the fluid
temperature is 20oC and the convective heat transfer coefficient is 2000 W/m2oC. The convective
heat transfer between the hotter surface and the colder air can be calculated as

q = (2000 W/(m2oC)) ((1 m) (1 m)) ((50 oC) - (20 oC))

= 60000 (W)

= 60 (kW)

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Radiation
Heat transfer through radiation takes place in form of electromagnetic waves mainly in the infrared
region. Radiation emitted by a body is a consequence of thermal agitation of its composing
molecules. Radiation heat transfer can be described by reference to the 'black body'.

The black body is defined as a body that absorbs all radiation that falls on its surface. Actual black
bodies don't exist in nature - though its characteristics are approximated by a hole in a box filled
with highly absorptive material. The emission spectrum of such a black body was first fully
described by Max Planck.

A black body is a hypothetical body that completely absorbs all wavelengths of thermal radiation
incident on it. Such bodies do not reflect light, and therefore appear black if their temperatures
are low enough so as not to be self-luminous. All black bodies heated to a given temperature emit
thermal radiation.

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The radiation energy per unit time from a black body is proportional to the fourth power of
the absolute temperature and can be expressed with Stefan-Boltzmann Law as

q = σ T4 A (1)

where

q = heat transfer per unit time (W)

σ = 5.6703 10-8 (W/m2K4) - The Stefan-Boltzmann Constant

T = absolute temperature in kelvins (K)

A = area of the emitting body (m2)

Example - Heat Radiation from the surface of the Sun

If the surface temperature of the sun is 5800 K and if we assume that the sun can be regarded
as a black body the radiation energy per unit area can be expressed by modifying (1) to

q / A = σ T4

= (5.6703 10-8 W/m2K4) (5800 K)4

= 6.42 107 (W/m2)

Real surfaces emit less radiation than ideal “black” ones – The ratio of energy radiated by a given
body to a perfect black body at the same temperature is called the emissivity: ε

ε is dependent on wavelength, but for most common building materials (e.g. brick, concrete,
wood…), ε = 0.9 at most wavelengths

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Solar Shading systems

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Wall Construction

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