Tables
• Used to present the data in a simple form.
• First step before the data is used for analysis or
interpretation.
• Data must be presented according to
size or importance,
chronologically,
alphabetically,
or geographically.
Table should not be too large
• Table number
• Title: brief and self explanatory.
• The problem under consideration, time period of the
study, place of study, nature of classification of data
• Head note: completes the information in the title of the
table
• Stubs: title of rows of a table
• Caption: title given to the coloumn of a table
• Body: sum total of the items in the table.
• Footnotes are given for the clarification of the reader.
• Source: when table are based on secondary data
Plotting graphs
• Showing numerical facts in visual form or representations
of data collected.
• Understand quickly, easily and clearly.
• Data can also be presented in the form of a table
• Graphical presentation is easier to understand.
Importance
• It is used to make the data understandable to common
man.
• Comparison easy
• Facilitates interpolation and extrapolation of the data in a
more convenient and precise manner
• Studying correlation between different variables, such as
price and demand, cost and output.
Limitations of Graphic Presentation
• Only a Measure Tendency
• Lack of precise Value
• Wrong Conclusion Chance
Line graph
• Usually meant for showing the frequencies for various
values of a variable.
• Successive points are joined by means of line segments.
Bar graph
• A chart that uses either horizontal or vertical bars to
show comparisons between categories
• Data is represented by bars.
• Start from a common horizontal or vertical line.
• Simple or compound.
Sub-divided bar graph
Helpful in representing the total number of elements in a
group.
Identifying and comparing the difference between the
components.
Advantages
• Show each data category in a frequency distribution
• Display relative numbers or proportions of multiple
categories
• Summarize a large data set in visual form
• Estimate key values at a glance
• Be easily understood due to widespread use in business
and the media
Disadvantages
• Require additional explanation
• Easily manipulated to yield false impressions
• Fail to reveal key assumptions, causes, effects, or
patterns
Histogram
• A Histogram is a bar graph that shows data in intervals.
• It has adjacent bars over the intervals.
• It consist of a series of blocks.
• It helps in comparing process within specified limits.
• It summaries large data.
• It assists in decision making.
Frequency polygon
• Frequency polygon is an area diagram of frequency
distribution over a histogram.
• It is a linear representation of a frequency table and
histogram, obtained by joining the mid points of the
hitogram blocks.
• Frequency is plotted at the central point of a group
Frequency curve
• The smoothed form of frequency polygon.
• Obtained by joining the points of a frequency polygon
through free hand smoothed curves.
• Area of a frequency curve is equal to the area of a
frequency polygon.
Ogive
• An Ogive is the curve which is constructed by plotting the
cumulative frequencies in the form of smooth curve.
• Come to know about the frequencies corresponding to a
certain lower or upper limits in the distribution of the
data.
• There are two methods of constructing an Ogive:
• (A)Less-than Method
• (B)More-than Method
Less than’ cumulative frequency ogive
• The ‘less than’ CF ogive is used to determine the number
of observations which fall below a given value.
• The difference between a CF curve and a CF polygon is
that, for the polygon, successive points are linked by
means of line segments whereas, for the curve, we fit a
smooth curve of best fit through the points.
More than Ogive
• Start with the lower limits of the classes and add
frequencies from the bottom.
• When the frequencies are plotted, we get a declining
curve.
Pie charts
• A pie chart (Pie Graph or Circle Graph) is one which
essentially displays the relative figures (proportions or
percentages) of classes or strata of a given sample or
population.
• Simplest diagram to display data.
• The angle of a sector is proportional to the frequency of
the data.
In a school, there are 750 students in Year1, 420 students in Year
2 and 630 students in Year 3. Draw a circle graph to represent the
numbers of students in these groups.
Total number of students = 750 + 420 + 630 = 1,800
Percentage = Angle/360)*100
Merits
• Simple pictorial display of the relative sizes of classes.
• It shows clearly when one class is more important than
another.
• It can be used for comparison of the same elements in
populations.
Limitations
• It only shows the relative sizes of classes.
• It is sometimes difficult to compare sectors sizes
accurately by eye.
Scatter diagrams
• Scatter diagrams, also known as scatterplots
• Used to investigate the relationship between two
variables.
• Scatter diagrams are especially very useful in
regression and correlation analyses.
Pictogram
• Pictogram or pictograph represents the frequency of
data as pictures or symbols.
• Each picture or symbol may represent one or more
units of the data.
• Popular method of presenting data to those who cannot
understand orthodox charts.
• Small pictures or symbols are used (e.g. book, car).
• Fraction of the picture - used to represent numbers
smaller than the value of whole symbol
Advantages
• Easy to read.
• Visually appealing.
Disadvantages
• They are difficult to draw.
• Icons must be of consistent size.
• Best for only 2-6 categories.
Box plots/Whisker plot
• The box plot is defined by five data-summary values
• minimum, first quartile, median, third quartile, and
maximum
• Flow chart - sequence of movements or actions of
people or things involved in a complex system or
activity.
• Semi logarithmic graph - one axis (vertical) has a
logarithmic scale and the other axis (horizontal) has a
linear scale.
• log-log graphs - both axes have a logarithmic scale.
