1.

Fluid & Its Physical Properties

1.1 Basics Concept and Definition of Fluid, Application in Civil Engineering

Fluid
The basic definition of fluid is that it is a substance which is capable of flowing.
Liquids and gases come under the category of fluid.
Mechanics
Mechanics is the study of force and motion.
Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Mechanics is the science which deals with the behaviour of fluids at rest and
in motion.
Hydraulics
Hydraulics is the science which deals with the behaviour of water at rest and in
motion.
Branches of Fluid Mechanics
I. Fluid Statics: Fluid statics is the study of fluids at rest.
II. Fluid Dynamics: Fluid dynamics is the study of fluids in motion. It is classified
into two branches.
a) Fluid Kinematics: Fluid Kinematics is the study of fluid motion without
considering the causes of motion (forces).
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 b) Fluid Kinetics: Fluid Kinetics is the study of fluid motion by considering
the causes of motion (forces).

Application of Fluid Mechanics

 Water distribution and sanitation
 Dams
 Irrigation
 Pumps and Turbines
 Water retaining structures
 Flood flow analysis
 Flow of air in and around buildings
 Bridge piers in rivers
 Ground-water flow

Stress
A stress is a force per unit area over which it acts. Stresses have both magnitude and
direction, and the direction is relative to the surface on which the stress acts. There
are two types of stresses:
I. Normal stress: The stress which acts perpendicular to the surface is normal stress.
II. Tangential stress: The stress which acts along the surface is tangential stress.
Shear stress is tangential stress.

Strain
Strain is the measurement of deformation. In case of fluid, the deformation caused
by shear stress is measured in terms of angle, which is known as shear strain.

Formal definition of fluid

A Fluid is a substance which deforms continuously or flows under the application of
shearing forces, however small they may be.

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For a fluid at rest, there are no shearing forces acting on it, and any force must be
acting perpendicular to the fluid.

1.2 Fluids and Solids

 Fluids lack the ability of solids to resist deformation.
 For a solid, strain is a function of applied stress, provided the elastic limit is
not exceeded. For a fluid, the rate of strain is proportional to applied stress.
 In a fluid, shear strain increases for as long as shear stress is applied. This
means the fluid flows as long as the forces acts and will not recover its original
position when the force is removed. In a solid shear strain is constant for a
fixed shear stress, and if the elastic limit is not exceeded, the deformation
disappears when the force is removed.
Forces
Point force: Single concentrated force
Line force: Force which acts along a line
 Body force: Body force is the force which acts throughout the volume of body.
e.g. gravity (weight), magnetic force, centrifugal force
 Surface force: Surface force is the force which acts on the surface of the body.
e.g. Pressure, shear force
Liquid and Gas

 Liquid: incompressible, fixed volume, forms free surface

 Gas: compressible, no fixed volume, expand continuously until restrained by
a containing vessel, no free surface, fill the vessel in which it is placed.

1.3 System and Control volume

System: A system is a fixed identifiable quantity of matter. The system boundary
separates the boundary from its surroundings.

Control volume: A control volume is a fixed region in space through which fluid
flows. The region is usually at a fixed location and fixed size. The boundary of the
system is its control surface and its shape does not change with time. The element
within the control volume obeys the physical laws. This approach makes
mathematical analysis simpler.

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As the fluid flows continuously, only a part of it is considered for analysis. The
control volume is chosen arbitrarily for reasons of convenience of analysis. Control
surface follows solid boundaries if present.

Differential and Integral approach

 Differential approach: If the control volume is of infinitesimal size,

differential equations are used. This approach gives value of variable at a
point.
 Integral approach: If the control volume is of finite size, integral equations are
used. This approach gives global or overall values.

Continuum Concept in Fluid Mechanics

In Fluid Mechanics, a fluid is considered as a continuous substance. This concept is
called continuum concept. In this concept, molecular structure of the fluid is not
considered and the separation between molecules is neglected. The fluid properties
such as velocity and pressure are a continuous function of space and time. The fluid
properties can be considered to be constant at any point in space, which is average
of large number of molecules surrounding that point within a characteristic distance.
Using continuum concept, the mathematical equations relating the physical laws can
be derived easily as we don’t need to consider the motion of individual molecule.
This concept is not valid if the mean free path of molecules is greater than the
characteristic dimension of fluid considered for analysis.

1.4 Fluid properties

Density
The density of a fluid is defined as its mass per unit volume.
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
Where 𝜌 = density, m = mass, V = Volume
Unit: kg/m3
Dimension: ML-3
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𝜌 decreases with increase of temperature and increases with increase of pressure. As
the temperature increases, molecular activity increases and spacing between
molecules increases, thus increasing volume and reducing density. If pressure is
increased, large number of molecules can be forced into a given volume, thus
reducing volume and increasing density.

Specific weight
The specific weight of a fluid is defined as its weight per unit volume.
𝑊 𝑚𝑔
𝛾= = = 𝜌𝑔
𝑉 𝑉
Where 𝛾 = specific weight, W = weight, V = Volume, m = mass, 𝜌 = density and g=
acceleration due to gravity
𝛾 varies from point to point according to the value of g.
Unit: N/m3
Dimension: ML-2T-2

Specific gravity (or relative density)

Specific gravity (or relative density) is the ratio of specific weight (or density) of a
fluid to that of standard fluid. In case of liquid, the standard fluid is water at 40C.
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑆𝑝 𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑆𝑝 𝑔𝑟 = 𝑜𝑟
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑝 𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Unit: As it is ratio, it does not have unit.

Specific volume
The specific volume of a fluid is defined as its volume per unit mass.
𝑉 1
𝑣𝑠 = =
𝑚 𝜌
Where vs = specific volume, V= Volume, m = mass and 𝜌 = density
Unit: m3/kg
Dimension: M-1L3

Variation of temperature and pressure has little effect on density, specific weight and
specific volume of liquids as the molecules of liquids are packed together, whereas
the impact on these properties in case of gases is significant.

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Compressibility and Bulk modulus
Compressibility is the change in the volume of fluid under the action of external
force. When temperature changes are involved or velocity of flow is very high, the
compressibility of a fluid becomes important. It is expressed by Bulk modulus of
elasticity

If pressure increases from P to P+dP, then the volume V of a given mass will be
reduced to V-dV.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑃
𝐾= (a)
−𝑑𝑉/𝑉
Where K= Bulk modulus of elasticity , dv/v = Volumetric strain
-ve sign means decrease in volume with pressure.
Unit of K: N/m2 (Pa)
Dimension: ML-1T-2

Compressibility is the inverse of the Bulk modulus of elasticity.

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Considering unit mass of substance, 𝑉 =
𝜌
Differentiating w.r.t. ρ
𝑑𝑉 𝑑(1/𝜌)
=
𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜌
𝑑𝑉 1
=− 2
𝑑𝜌 𝜌
𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜌 1
𝑑𝑉 = − 2 = − .
𝜌 𝜌 𝜌
𝑑𝜌
𝑑𝑉 = − .𝑉 (b)
𝜌

From a and b,
𝑑𝑃
𝐾=𝜌
𝑑𝜌
This shows that the value of K depends on the relationship between the pressure and
density. Since density is also affected by temperature, it will depend on how the
temperature changes during compression. K increases with increase in pressure and

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decreases with increase in temperature in case of liquids. This relationship is
opposite in case of gases.

Surface tension
Surface tension is defined as the tensile force per unit length acting on a line lying
in the interface of two fluids. The force is normal to imaginary line in the surface,
tangent to the free surface and is same at all points. Surface tension is constant at
any given temperature for the surface of the separation of two particular substances
but it decreases with increase in temperature because attractive force becomes
apparent as the average kinetic energy of molecules increases.

Intermolecular attraction is the cause of surface tension. A molecule within the body
of a liquid is equally attracted in all directions by the other molecules surrounding
it. At the interface between two fluids, the upward and downward attractions are
unbalanced, and the surface molecules are pulled inward making the surface like an
elastic membrane. The effect of surface tension is to reduce the surface of a free
body of a liquid to a minimum (formation of spherical drop).

Example of phenomenon of surface tension: raindrops, rise of sap in tree, capillary

rise and capillary siphoning, collection of dust particles on water surface

Symbol: 𝜎
Unit: N/m
Dimension: MT-2
a. Pressure intensity inside a droplet

Consider a small spherical droplet of radius r. Let P be pressure inside a droplet in

excess of external pressure and 𝜎 be the surface tension.

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Force due to internal pressure = Force due to surface tension around perimeter
𝑃𝑥𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜎𝑥2𝜋𝑟
2𝜎 4𝜎
𝑃= =
𝑟 𝑑
b. Pressure inside soap bubble
(contribution of inside and outside interface)

Force due to internal pressure = Force due to surface tension around perimeter
𝑃𝑥𝜋𝑟 2 = 2(𝜎𝑥2𝜋𝑟)
4𝜎 8𝜎
𝑃= =
𝑟 𝑑

c. Liquid jet (cylindrical)

Force due to internal pressure = Force due to surface tension around perimeter
𝑃𝑥𝑙𝑥2𝑟 = 𝜎𝑥2𝑙
𝜎 2𝜎
𝑃= =
𝑟 𝑑

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Capillarity
Capillarity is the rise or fall of liquid in a column of very small diameter when the
latter is dipped in it. It is caused by surface tension as well as adhesion (attraction
between molecules of different substances) and cohesion (attraction between
molecules of same liquid).

If adhesion is greater than cohesion, the liquid wets the solid and the liquid will rise.
If cohesion is greater than adhesion, the liquid does not wet the solid and the liquid
will fall. The contact angle is less than 900 for capillary rise and greater than 900 for
fall.

Let θ is the angle of contact between liquid and solid, d is the diameter of the
cylindrical tube, σ is the surface tension and H is capillary rise. As the liquid is at
rest, there is no shear stress and therefore no vertical shear forces acting. Weight of
the fluid and the vertical component of the surface tension are the only forces acting.

Upward pull due to surface tension force= Weight of column contained in height H
𝜋𝑑 2
𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑥𝜋𝑑 = 𝜌𝑔 𝐻
4
4𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 4𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐻= or 𝐻 =
𝜌𝑔𝑑 𝛾𝑑

For water and glass: 𝜃 = 0, for mercury: 𝜃 = 130 𝑡𝑜 150 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒

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Capillary rise of fluid contained between parallel plates at a distance t

H = Capillary rise
t = distance between plates
σ = Surface tension
θ = Angle of contact
L= width of plate

Upward force due to surface tension = weight of fluid

(𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑥𝐿)𝑥2 = 𝜌𝑔𝐻𝑡𝑥𝐿
(surface tension force acting on both sides)
2𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐻=
𝜌𝑔𝑡

Capillary Rise Between Two Concentric Glass Tubes

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H =Capillary rise, σ = Surface tension, θ = Angle of contact, r1 = Radius of inner
tube, r2 = Radius of outer tube
Force due to surface tension = 𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑥2𝜋𝑟1 + 𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑥2𝜋𝑟2 = 2𝜋𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃(𝑟1 + 𝑟2 )
Weight of fluid contained in height H =
𝜌𝑔(𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠)
= 𝜌𝑔(𝜋𝑟22 𝐻 − 𝜋𝑟12 𝐻) = 𝜌𝑔𝜋𝐻(𝑟22 − 𝑟12 )
Equating
2𝜋𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃(𝑟1 + 𝑟2 ) = 𝜌𝑔𝜋𝐻(𝑟22 − 𝑟12 )
2𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐻=
𝜌𝑔(𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )

Vapor pressure and Cavitation

Liquid evaporate because of molecules with sufficient kinetic energy escaping from
the liquid surface. The vapor molecules exert a partial pressure in the space, which
is called vapor pressure. Vapor pressure depends on temperature and increases with
it. In equilibrium, the number of molecules striking the surface and condensing is
equal to the number of escaping molecules. When the pressure above a liquid equals
the vapor pressure of the liquid, boiling occurs.

When flow of liquid passes through a region having pressure less than vapor
pressure, there will be local boiling and a cloud of vapor bubbles will form. This
phenomenon is known as cavitation. The bubbles of low pressure zone move
towards the high pressure zone and collapse under that pressure. If this occurs in
contact with a solid surface, serious damage can result. Cavitation can affect the
performance of hydraulic machinery such as propellers, turbines and pumps and the
impact of collapsing bubbles can cause local erosion of metal surface.

Viscosity
Viscosity is the property of a fluid due to which it offers resistance to shear. It is a
measure of internal friction which causes resistance to flow.

The molecules of gas are not rigidly constrained and cohesive forces are small. So,
the molecular mass interchange (momentum) is the cause of viscosity in a gas. As
cohesive forces are significant in a liquid, both mass interchange and cohesion
contribute to the viscosity of the liquid.
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Viscosity is practically independent upon pressure and depends on temperature only.
If the temperature increases, the molecular interchange will increase. Therefore, the
viscosity of a gas will increase with increase in temperature. Cohesion is the
predominant cause of viscosity in liquid and since cohesion decreases with
temperature, the viscosity of a liquid decreases with increase in temperature.

Newton’s law of viscosity

Newton’s law of viscosity states that the shear stress is proportional to the rate of
deformation or velocity gradient.
𝑑𝑢
𝜏∝
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
Where 𝜏 = shear stress, du/dy = velocity gradient andthe constant of proportionality
(𝜇) = coefficient of viscosity. The constant is also called dynamic viscosity or
absolute viscosity.
Unit of 𝜇: Ns/m2 or Kg/ms or Pa S (in SI)
Poise or dyn S/ cm2 (in CGS)
1N = 1 kg m/s2 = 105Dyn (1Dyn = 1gm cm/s2)
1 NS/m2 = 10 Poise
Dimension: ML-1T-1

Kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to density.

𝜇
𝜐=
𝜌
Where 𝜐= Kinematic viscosity and ρ = density.
Unit of 𝜐: m2/s (SI)
Stokes or cm2/s (CGS)
1 m2/s = 104 Stokes
Dimension: L2T-1

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1.5 Newton’s laws of motion
I. A body will remain at rest or in a state of uniform motion in a straight line unless
acted upon by an external force.
II. The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the force applied
and takes place in the direction of action of that force. (Force = mass x
acceleration)
III. Action and reaction are equal and opposite.

Conservation of mass: Mass remains constant.

Conservation of momentum (Newton’s second law of motion): Force = rate of
change of momentum or F=ma
Conservation of energy: Energy remains constant.

1.6 Relationship between viscosity and temperature

For Liquids
1
𝜇 = 𝜇0 ( )
1 + 𝛼𝑡 + 𝛽𝑡 2
where𝜇 = viscosity of liquid at t0C in poise, 𝜇0 = viscosity of liquid at 00C in poise
α, β = constants
For gas
𝜇 = 𝜇0 + 𝛼𝑡 − 𝛽𝑡 2
where𝜇 = viscosity of gas at t0C in poise, 𝜇0 = viscosity of gas at 00C in poise
α, β = constants

Shear stress in a moving fluid

For a fluid at rest, there is no shear stress. When one layer of the fluid moves relative
to an adjacent layer, transfer of molecular momentum sets up shear stress which
resists the relative motion. The measure of the motion of one layer relative to an
adjacent layer is velocity gradient, du/dy. According to Newton’s law of viscosity,
shear stress varies linearly with the velocity gradient.

1.8 Classification of fluids

a. Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids
Fluids which obey Newton’s law of viscosity are called Newtonian fluids. E.g.
water, light oil, air, milk, glycerin, kerosene. For Newtonian fluids, viscosity is
constant i.e. viscosity depends on temperature only. Fluids which do not obey

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Newton’s law of viscosity are called Non-Newtonian fluids. E.g. paint, sewage
sludge, crude oil, mud flow. Viscosity is not constant for Non-Newtonian fluids i.e.
viscosity depends on temperature, rate of strain and time.
b. Compressible and incompressible fluid
Fluids whose density changes due to change in pressure are called compressible
fluids, e.g. air. Fluids whose density remains constant are called incompressible
fluids, e.g. water.

b. Ideal and real fluid

The fluid which is incompressible and has no viscosity is called ideal fluid (non-
viscous or inviscid). It is an imaginary fluid. The fluid which has viscosity is called
real fluid (viscous). All the fluids that exist in nature are real fluids.

Shear stress-rate of strain (velocity gradient) diagram

𝑑𝑢
Newtonian fluid: 𝜏 = 𝜇
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑛
Non-Newtonian fluid: 𝜏 ≠ 𝜇 . The relationship is 𝜏 = 𝜇 ( )
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦

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1.7 Determination of viscosity
a. Sphere resistance
The resistance offered by a fluid when a sphere falls into it is the measure of
viscosity.

Viscous force F on a sphere of radius r moving with velocity v into a fluid of

viscosity 𝜇 is (Stoke’s law)
𝐹 = 6𝜋𝜇𝑟𝑣
Pull of gravity on sphere = Weight of sphere-Weight of fluid displaced =
4
𝜋𝑟 3 𝑔(𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌)
3
Where 𝜌𝑠 = density of sphere and 𝜌 = density of fluid.
Equating

4
6𝜋𝜇𝑟𝑣 = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝑔(𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌)
3
2𝑟 2
𝑣= 𝑔(𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌)
9𝜇
Viscosity is determined by measuring the time taken by the sphere to fall a known
height through the fluid.

b. Rotating cylinder
A cylinder of radius r2 is rotated coaxially inside a fixed cylinder of radius r1 both
cylinders having a length of l. The annular space between the two cylinders is filled
with a liquid of viscosity 𝜇. A torque T is required to maintain an angular velocity
𝜔 of the inner cylinder. The torque is transmitted from the inner to the outer cylinder
through the liquid which consists of layers.

For small space between cylinders, the velocity gradient may be assumed to be a
straight line.
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Frictional force (F) = Shear stress(τ) x surface area (A)
𝑑𝑢
𝑇 = 𝐹 𝑟2 = 𝜇 (2𝜋𝑟2 𝐿)𝑟2
𝑑𝑦
2𝑁𝜋
Here, Angular velocity (𝜔) = and
60
Tangential velocity of inner cylinder (u) = 𝑟2 𝜔 = du
dy = dr = r1-r2
Power = T ω or F u
(Instead of r2, average radius can also be taken to compute T).

c. Viscometer
Viscometer usually measures time (t) taken to pass a certain volume of fluid through
an opening fitted at its bottom. Viscosity is then expressed as a function of t.

d. Capillary tube
The volume of fluid (Vol) passing through a horizontal capillary tube of radius r
under a constant pressure difference of ∆𝑃in time t sec is measured for finding
viscosity.
𝜋𝑟 4 ∆𝑃 𝑡
𝑉𝑜𝑙 =
8𝑙𝜇
where 𝜇 = viscosity, l = length of tube

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e. Bearing

17
Some properties of water

At 40c (at which maximum density occurs) and standard pressure (760mmHg),
Density of water = 1000 kg/m3 and specific weight = 9810N/m3

Properties of water at 200C and atmospheric pressure

Density of water = 998 kg/m3
Dynamic viscosity = 1.005x10-3 NS/m2
Kinematic viscosity = 1.007x10-6 m2/s
Surface tension = 0.074 N/m
Bulk modulus = 2.2 Gpa
Vapor pressure = 2.45 Kpa
Properties of air at 200C and atmospheric pressure
Density of air = 1.2 kg/m3
Dynamic viscosity = 14.94x10-3 NS/m2
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Kinematic viscosity = 9.83x10-6 m2/s
Anomalous property of water

When cooled, the molecules of water contract up to 40C. The coefficient of thermal
expansion of water becomes zero at 40C, thus making volume minimum and
density maximum. From 40C to 00C, expansion occurs, thus reducing density. So
density of ice is less than water.

References;
1. K.N Dulal, Hydraulics Notes for Civil Engineering, Kathmandu Nepal 2012.
2. D.P. Sangraula & P. Bhattarai, A Text Book of Hydraulics, Kathmandu Nepal, 2012
3. Arora K.R. Fluid Mechanics Hydraulics and Hydraulic Machines, Standard publishers,
New Delhi, 2005
4. R.K Bansal, A Text Book of Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machines, Laxmi Publication,
New Delhi, 2010
5. Zoeb Hussain et al, Basic Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machines, BS Publication,
Hyderabad, 2008
6. S.K Mondal, Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machine, 2008
7. Hubert Chanson, The Hydraulics of Open Channel Flow: An Introduction, Elsevier, 2004
8. P.N Modi & S.M. Seth, Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics, New Delhi,

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