Fluid Mechanics I Module 1

MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION OF FLUID MECHANICS

Fluid mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the behaviour of the fluids
(liquids or gases) at rest as well as in motion. This branch of science deals with the static,
kinematics and dynamic aspects of fluids. The study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics. The
study of fluids in motion, where pressure forces are not considered, is called fluid kinematics and
if the pressure forces are also considered for the fluids in motion, that branch of scienc e is called
fluid dynamics.

FLUID PROPERTIES

Density or Mass Density: Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass
of a fluid to its volume. Thus mass per unit volume of a fluid is called density. It is denoted the
symbol 𝜌 (rho). The unit of mass density in SI unit is kg per cubic metre, i.e., kg/m3. The density
of liquids may be considered as constant while that of gases changes with the variation of
pressure and temperature.
Mathematically, mass density is written as
Mass of fluid
𝜌=
Volume of fluid
The value of density of water is 1gm/cm or 1000 kg/m3.
3

Specific Weight or Weight Density: Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the ratio
between the weight of a fluid to its volume. Thus weight per unit volume of a fluid is called
weight density and it is denoted by the symbol 𝛾.
Weight of fluid
Thus mathematically, 𝛾=
Volume of fluid
(Mass of fluid ) x Acceleration due to gravity
= Volume of fluid
Mass of fluid x g
=
Volume of fluid
= 𝜌 .𝑔
The value of specific weight or weight density ( 𝛾) for water is 9.81 x 1000 Newton/m3 in SI unit.

Prepared by Ms. Cinaya Tony, Asst. Prof, CE Dept., SBCE Page 1

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Fluid Mechanics I Module 1

Specific Gravity: Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight density (or density) of a
fluid to the weight density (or density) of a standard fluid. For liquids, the standard fluid is taken
water and for gases, the standard fluid is taken air. Specific gravity is also called relative density.
It is dimensionless quantity and is denoted by the symbol S.
Weight density (density ) of liquid
Mathematically, S (for liquids) =
Weight density (density ) of water

Weight density (density ) of gas

S (for gases) =
Weight density (density ) of air

Thus weight density of a liquid = S x Weight density of water

= 𝑆 × 1000 × 9.81N/m3
The density of a liquid = S x Density of water
= S x 1000 kg/m3.
If the specific gravity of a fluid is known, then the density of the fluid will be equal to specific
gravity of fluid multiplied by the density of water. For example the specific gravity of mercury is
13.6, hence density of mercury = 13.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m3.
Viscosity: Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement
of one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid. When two layers of a fluid, a
distance 𝑑𝑦 apart, move one over the other at different velocities, say u and u + du as shown in
Fig., the viscosity together with relative velocity causes a shear stress acting between the fluid
layers.
The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent
lower layer while the lower layer causes a shear stress
on the adjacent top layer. This shear stress is
proportional to the rate of change of velocity with
respect to y. It is denoted by symbol 𝜏 called Tau.
𝑑𝑢
Mathematically, 𝜏 𝛼
𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
Where 𝜇 (called mu) is the constant of proportionality and is known as the co-efficient of
𝑑𝑢
dynamic viscosity or only viscosity. represents the rate of shear strain or rate of shear
𝑑𝑦

deformation or velocity gradient.

Prepared by Ms. Cinaya Tony, Asst. Prof, CE Dept., SBCE Page 2

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Fluid Mechanics I Module 1

Thus viscosity is also defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear strain.
𝑁𝑆
SI unit of viscosity = = 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙(𝑃𝑎)
𝑚2
1 𝑁𝑆
One Poise =
10 𝑚 2
Kinematic Viscosity: It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of
fluid. It is denoted by the Greek symbol (𝜗) called 'nu'. Thus, mathematically,
dynamic viscosity
Kinematic Viscosity 𝜗= Density
𝑚2
SI unit of Kinematic viscosity =
𝑆

𝑚2
One Stoke = 10−4
𝑆
TYPES OF FLUIDS
The fluids may be classified into the following five types:
1. Ideal fluid,
2. Real fluid,
3. Newtonian fluid,
4. Non-Newtonian fluid, and
5. Ideal plastic fluid.
Ideal Fluid: A fluid, which is incompressible and is
having no viscosity, is known as an ideal fluid. Ideal
fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all the fluids, which
exist, have some viscosity.
Real Fluid: A fluid, which possesses viscosity, is
known as real fluid. All the fluids, in actual practice, are real fluids.
Newtonian Fluid: A real fluid, in which the shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of
shear strain (or velocity gradient), is known as Newtonian fluid.
Non-Newtonian Fluid: A real fluid, in which the shear stress is not proportional to the rate of
shear strain (or velocity gradient), known as a Non-Newtonian fluid.
Ideal Plastic Fluid: A fluid, in which there is no deformation when stressed up to a certain point
(yield stress) and beyond that it behaves like a Newtonian Fluid.

Prepared by Ms. Cinaya Tony, Asst. Prof, CE Dept., SBCE Page 3

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Fluid Mechanics I Module 1

FLUID PRESSURE AT A POINT

Consider a small area dA in large mass of fluid. If the fluid is stationary, then the force exerted
by the surrounding fluid on the area dA will always perpendicular to the surface dA. Let dF is
dF
the force acting on the area dA in the normal direction. Then the ratio of is known as the
dA

intensity of pressure or simply pressure and this ratio is represented by p.

Hence mathematically the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is
𝑑𝐹
𝑝 =
𝑑𝐴
If the force (F) is uniformly distributed over the area (A), then pressure at any point is given by
𝐹 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑃 =𝐴= 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
∴ Force or pressure force, F = p x A
The units of pressure are: (i) kgf/m2 and kgf/cm2 in MKS units, (ii) Newton/m 2 or N/m2 and
N/mm2 in SI units. N/m2 is known as Pascal and is represented by Pa. Other commonly used
units of pressure are:
kPa = kilo Pascal = 1000 N/m2
bar = 100 kPa = 105 N/m2.
PASCAL'S LAW

The Pascal's law states that the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is the same in all
directions. Let us prove this law by considering the equilibrium of a small fluid element shown
in Fig.

The fluid element is of very small dimensions i.e., dx, dy and ds.
Consider an arbitrary fluid element of wedge shape in a fluid mass at rest as shown in Fig. Let
the width of the element perpendicular to the plane of paper is unity and P x, Py and Pz are the

Prepared by Ms. Cinaya Tony, Asst. Prof, CE Dept., SBCE Page 4

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Fluid Mechanics I Module 1

pressures or intensity of pressure acting on the face AB, AC and BC respectively. Let < 𝐴𝐵𝐶 =
𝜃. Then the forces acting on the element are:
1. Pressure forces normal to the surfaces, and
2. Weight of element in the vertical direction.
The forces on the faces are:
Force on the face AB = 𝑃𝑥 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝐵
= 𝑃𝑥 . 𝑑𝑦. 1
Similarly force on the face AC = 𝑃𝑦 . 𝑑𝑥. 1
Force on the face BC = 𝑃𝑧 . 𝑑𝑠. 1
Weight of element = Mass of the element x g
= 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 . 𝜌 . 𝑔
𝐴𝐵 𝑥 𝐴𝐶
= 𝑥 1 𝜌𝑔
2
where ρ is density of fluid.
Resolving the forces in x-directlon, we have
𝑃𝑥 𝑑𝑦 .1 – 𝑃𝑧 (𝑑𝑠 .1) Sin(900 – 𝜃) = 0
𝑃𝑥 𝑑𝑦 .1 – 𝑃𝑧 (𝑑𝑠 .1) Cos 𝜃 = 0
From fig, 𝑑𝑠 Cos 𝜃 = AB = 𝑑𝑦
𝑃𝑥 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑃𝑧 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃𝑧 ----------(1)

Similarly, resolving forces in y direction,

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑃𝑦 𝑑𝑥 .1 – 𝑃𝑧 (𝑑𝑠 .1) Cos(900 – 𝜃) – 𝜌𝑔=0
2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑃𝑦 𝑑𝑥 – 𝑃𝑧 𝑑𝑠 Sin𝜃 – 𝜌𝑔=0
2

From fig, 𝑑𝑠 Sin 𝜃 = 𝑑𝑥 and also the element is very small and hence weight is negligible.
𝑃𝑦 𝑑𝑥 – 𝑃𝑧 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑃𝑦 = 𝑃𝑧 ------------(2)
From equation (1) and (2)
𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑃𝑧

Prepared by Ms. Cinaya Tony, Asst. Prof, CE Dept., SBCE Page 5

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Fluid Mechanics I Module 1

The above equation shows that the pressure at any point in x, y and z directions is equal.
Since the choice of fluid element was completely arbitrary, which means the pressure at any
point is the same in all directions.
This law is valid for the cases of fluid flow where shear stresses do not exist. The cases are

a. Fluid at rest.
b. No relative motion exists between different fluid layers. For example, fluid at a constant
linear acceleration in a container.
c. Ideal fluid flow where viscous force is negligible

PRESSURE VARIATION IN A FLUID AT REST

The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is obtained by the Hydro- static Law which states that
the rate of increase of pressure in a vertically downward direction must equal to specific weight
of the fluid at that point. This is proved as:
Consider a small fluid element as shown in Fig.
Let ΔA = Cross-sectional area of element
ΔZ = Height of fluid element
p = Pressure on face AB
Z = Distance of fluid element from free surface.
The forces acting on the fluid element are:

1. Pressure force on AB = p x ΔA and acting perpendicular to face AB in the downward

direction.
𝜕𝑃
2. Pressure force on CD = 𝑃 + ∆𝑍 ΔA acting perpendicular to face CD, vertically upward
𝜕𝑍

direction
3. Weight of fluid element = Density x g x Volume = 𝜌 x g x (ΔA x ΔZ).
4. Pressure forces on surfaces BC and AD are equal and opposite. For equilibrium of fluid
element, we have
𝜕𝑃
p ΔA - 𝑃 + ∆𝑍 ΔA + 𝜌 x g x (ΔA x ΔZ) = 0
𝜕𝑍

𝜕𝑃
p ΔA - p ΔA - ∆𝑍 ΔA + 𝜌 x g x (ΔA x ΔZ) = 0
𝜕𝑍

𝜕𝑃
- ∆𝑍 ΔA + 𝜌 x g x (ΔA x ΔZ) = 0
𝜕𝑍

Prepared by Ms. Cinaya Tony, Asst. Prof, CE Dept., SBCE Page 6

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Fluid Mechanics I Module 1

𝜕𝑃
∆𝑍 ΔA = 𝜌 x g x (ΔA x ΔZ)
𝜕𝑍

𝜕𝑃
= 𝜌𝑔 = 𝛾 ………(1)
𝜕𝑍

𝛾 = Weight density of fluid

Equation (1) States that rate of increase of pressure in a vertical direction is equal to weight
density of the fluid at that point. This is Hydrostatic Law.
By integrating the above equation (1) for liquids, we get
𝑑𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑍
P = 𝜌𝑔𝑍
Where P is the pressure above atmospheric pressure and Z is the height of the point from free
surfaces.
Where Z is called pressure head

Problem 1: An open tank contains water upto a depth of 2 m and above it an oil of sp. gr. 0.9 for
a depth of 1 m. Find the pressure intensity (i) at the interface of the two liquids, and (ii) at the
bottom of the tank

Prepared by Ms. Cinaya Tony, Asst. Prof, CE Dept., SBCE Page 7

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Fluid Mechanics I Module 1

ABSOLUTE, GAUGE, ATMOSPHERIC AND VACUUM PRESSURES

The pressure on a fluid is measured in two different systems. In one system, it is measured above
the absolute zero or complete vacuum and it is
called the absolute pressure and in other system,
pressure is measured above the atmospheric
pressure and it is called gauge pressure. Thus:
1. Absolute pressure is defined as the pressure
which is measured with reference to absolute
vacuum pressure.
2. Gauge pressure is defined as the pressure which is measured with the help of a pressure
measuring instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum. The atmospheric
pressure on the scale is marked as zero.
3. Vacuum pressure is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric pressure.
The relationship between the absolute pressure, gauge pressure and vacuum pressure a re shown
in Fig.
Mathematically:
(i) Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure
P ab = P atm + P gauge
(ii) Vacuum pressure = Atmospheric pressure — Absolute pressure.
Local atmospheric pressure can be measured by mercury barometer. At sea level, under normal
conditions, the atmospheric pressure is approximately 101.043 kPa.
Note : (1) The atmospheric pressure at sea level at 150C is 101.3kN/m2 or 10.13N/cm 2 in S.I
2
unit. In case of MKS units, it is equal to 1.033kgf/cm .
(ii) The atmospheric pressure head is 760mm of mercury or 10.33 m of water
MEASUREMENTOF PRESSURE
The pressure of a fluid is measured by the following devices:
1. Manometers
2. Mechanical Gauges
Manometers: Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at a point
in a fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of the fluid. They are
classified as:

Prepared by Ms. Cinaya Tony, Asst. Prof, CE Dept., SBCE Page 8

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Fluid Mechanics I Module 1

(a) Simple Manometers (b) Differential manometers

Mechanical Gauges: Mechanical gauges are defined as the devices used for measuring the
pressure by balancing the fluid column by the spring or dead weight. The commonly used
mechanical pressure gauges are:
(a) Diaphragm pressure gauges (b) Bourdon tube pressure gauge
(c) Dead –weight pressure gauge (d) Bellows pressure gauge
SIMPLE MANOMETERS
A simple manometer consists of a glass tube having one of its ends connected to a point where
pressure is to be measured and other end remains to atmosphere. Common types of simple
manometers are:
1. Piezometer
2. U-tube Manometer, and
3. Single Column Manometer.
Piezometer: It is the simplest form of manometer used for measuring
gauge pressures. One end of this manometer is connected to the point
where pressure is to be measured and other end is open to the
atmosphere as shown in Fig. The rise of liquid gives the pressure head
at that point. If at a point A, the height of liquid say water is h in
piezometer tube, then pressure at A
= 𝜌𝑔𝑕 N/m2
U-tube Manometer: It consists of glass tube bent in U shape, one end of which is connected to a
point at which pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to the atmosphere as
shown in the Fig. The tube generally contains mercury or any other liquid whose specific gravity
is greater than the specific gravity of the liquid whose pressure is to be measured.

Prepared by Ms. Cinaya Tony, Asst. Prof, CE Dept., SBCE Page 9

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in