FLUID MECHANICS

Fluid Mechanics is the branch of physics that studies the behavior of fluids at rest and in motion. It
deals with the properties of fluids, such as their flow patterns, pressure distribution, forces acting on them,
and their interactions with solid boundaries. Civil engineers use this subject to design drainage channels,
water networks, sewer systems and structures such as dams, reservoirs, weirs, spillways, and culverts.

Three main categories:

1. Fluid Statics/Hydrostatics – is the study of fluids at rest or in a state of equilibrium.
2. Fluid Kinematics – is the study of fluids without considering the forces causing the motion.
3. Fluid Dynamics/Hydrodynamics – is the study of fluid motion and the forces and energies associated
with it.
Hydraulics – a subfield of fluid mechanics that specifically deals with the behavior and use of fluids
(usually liquids) in engineering application.

General classifications of matter:

1. Solid – is a substance with a definite shape and volume. Their particles are closely packed and have
strong intermolecular forces that hold them in a fixed position.
2. Liquid – is a substance that have a definite volume but take the shape of their container. They flow and
can exert pressure equally in all directions.
3. Gas – is a substance that have neither a definite shape or volume and expand to fill the entire volume
of its container. They are highly compressible and exhibit low intermolecular forces compared to liquids
and solids.
Fluids are substances that continuously deform or flow when subjected to a shear or tangential
force. Liquids and gases are classified as fluids. Fluid behavior is a characteristic exhibited by any substance
that flows because it cannot support a shear loading, regardless of how small the shear force is, or how
slowly the “fluid” deforms. Other definition: Fluids are substances capable of flowing having particles
which easily move and change their relative position without a separation of the mass. Fluids offer
practically no resistance to change of form. They readily conform to the shape of the solid body with which
they come in contact.
Fluids may be divided into liquids and gases. The principal difference between them is: A liquid has a
free surface, and a given mass of a liquid occupies only a given volume in a container, whereas a gas does
not have a free surface and a given mass occupies all portions of any container regardless of its size.

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 Characteristics LIQUIDS GASES
Shape Takes the shape of the container
Volume Fixed volumes Take on volumes of container
Compressibility Incompressible Compressible
Molecular Spacing Relatively close Relatively far apart
Shear Resistance Cannot support shear forces
Pressure Pressure exerted by a fluid on any solid surface is always normal to that surface

Types of Fluids:
 Ideal Fluid (also known as Perfect Fluid, Non-Viscous Fluid, Inviscid Fluid) - A fluid that have
no viscosity, incompressible, no resistance to shear, and no friction between moving spaces. Ideal
fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all the fluids, which exist, have some viscosity.
 Non-Ideal Fluid (also known as Real Fluid, Viscous Fluid) – A fluid that have non-zero viscosity,
compressible, and exhibit more complex flow characteristics.

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
1. Density, Specific Weight, Specific Gravity and Specific Volume

Density (also known as Mass Density), designated by the Greek symbol ρ (rho), is defined as its mass
per unit volume. Density is typically used to characterize the mass of a fluid system. In the English system,
ρ has units of slugs/ft3 and in SI the units are kg/m3.

Standards:
ρw = 1000 kg/m3 (for liquids)
ρair = 1.2 kg/m3 (for gases)

Specific Weight (also known as Unit Weight and Weight Density), designated by the Greek symbol 𝛾
(gamma), is defined as its weight per unit volume.

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 Where g is the local acceleration of gravity. Just as density is used to characterize the mass of a fluid system,
the specific weight is used to characterize the weight of the system. In the English system, 𝛾 has units of
lb/ft3 and in SI the units are N/m3. Under conditions of standard gravity (g = 32.2 ft/s2 = 9.807 m/s2), water
at 4 ℃ has a specific weight of 62.4 lbf/ft3 and 9.81 kN/m3.

Specific Gravity (also known as Relative Density), designated as sg, is defined as the ratio of the density
of the fluid to the density of water at some specified temperature. Usually, the specified temperature is
taken as 4 ℃ (39.2 ℉), and at this temperature the density of water is 1.94 slugs/ft3 𝑜𝑟 1000 kg/m3.

𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

𝑠𝑔 = =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟/𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟/𝑎𝑖𝑟

Specific Gravity of Common Fluids:

 Water (at 4 ℃) = 1
 Sea Water = 1.03
 Mercury = 13.6

Specific Volume, designated as VS, is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied by a unit mass or volume
per unit mass of a fluid. Specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. It is expressed as m 3/kg. It is
commonly applied to gases.

2. Ideal Gas Law

The behavior of an ideal gas is based on ideal gas law expressed as

𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
Where
𝑝 = absolute pressure
𝑇 = absolute temperature
𝑅 = gas constant
For air, 𝑅 = 286.9 J/kg-°K or 1,716 lbf-ft/slug-°R

3. Viscosity

Viscosity (also known as Absolute Viscosity and Dynamic Viscosity), designated by the Greek
symbol 𝜇 (mu), is a property of fluid that measures the resistance to movement of a very thin layer of fluid

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over an adjacent one. This resistance occurs only when a tangential or shear force is applied to the fluid.
The resulting deformation occurs at different rates for different types of fluids.

Consider two large, parallel plates at a small distance ‘y’ apart, the space between them being filled with a
fluid. Consider the upper plate to be subject to a force F so as to move with a constant velocity U. The fluid
in contact with the upper plate will adhere to it and will move with the same velocity U while the fluid in
contact with the fixed plate will have a zero velocity. For small values of U and y, the velocity gradient can
be assumed to be a straight line and F varies directly to A (Area of contact) and U and inversely to y.

AU F U
F∝ or ∝
𝑦 A 𝑦
U dV
But = (from the figure)
𝑦 dy
Supplementary Note (Algebra): When two variables are
F
And = shearing stress (τ) directly or indirectly proportional to each other, then their
A relationship can be described as y = kx or y = k/x, where k
determines how the two variables are related to one
F U dV dV
Now, ∝ is τ ∝ dy or τ = k dy another. This k is known as the constant of proportionality.
A y

The constant of proportionality k is called the dynamic or absolute viscosity denoted as 𝜇.

F
dV τ A
τ = 𝜇 dy or 𝜇 = dV or 𝜇 = dV
dy dy

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 Viscosity (𝜇) is also defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear strain.
dV
 represents the rate of shear strain or rate of shear deformation or velocity gradient.
dy

Units of Viscosity:

SI unit for Viscosity

Kinematic Viscosity, designated by the Greek symbol 𝑣 (nu), is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of a
fluid to its density.

Units for Kinematic Viscosity:

SI unit for Kinematic Viscosity = m2/sec.

 Two fluids with the same dynamic viscosities can have very different kinematic viscosities
depending on density and vice versa.

Newton’s Law of Viscosity. It states that the shear stress (τ) on a fluid element layer is directly
proportional to the rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is called the coefficient of
viscosity. Mathematically,
dV
τ = 𝜇 dy

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4. Surface Tension

Liquids have cohesion and adhesion, both of which are forms of molecular attraction. Cohesion is
the intermolecular attraction of liquid molecules for each other. Adhesion is the attraction of molecules of a
certain liquid for molecules of another substance. Surface tension the intermolecular attraction per unit
length along any line in the liquid surface.
The molecule located deep within the liquid has the same cohesive forces acting on it by all the
surrounding molecules. Consequently, there is no resultant force acting on it. However, the molecule
located on the surface of the liquid has cohesive forces that come only from molecules that are next to it
on the surface and from those below it. This will produce a net resultant downward force, and the effect
of all such forces will produce a contraction of the surface. In other words, the resultant cohesive force
attempts to pull downward on the surface. This is the phenomenon of surface tension.
Simply, Surface Tension is the pulling effect on the liquid molecules at an interface caused by the
attractive forces of molecules per unit length. It is designated by the Greek symbol σ (lowercase sigma).
Cohesive Forces are responsible for Surface Tension.

The tensile force that is required to separate the molecules is known as surface tension. Surface
tension is the amount of energy per unit interface area required to overcome the molecular attraction within
the interface.

where 𝐹 (in Newton) is the surface tension force over a distance L (in meter) of the liquid surface. Surface
tension becomes smaller as temperature rises.

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5. Capillarity

Capillarity (also known as Capillary Action, Capillary Motion, Capillary Effect) results from
the interaction of fluids with small-diameter tubes. The rise or fall of fluid in a capillary tube is caused by
surface tension and depends on the relative magnitudes of the cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of
the liquid to the walls.
Adhesion – refers to the attraction between molecules of different substance. It describes the tendency of a
fluid to be attracted and stick to the surface of another material.
Cohesion – refers to the attraction between molecules of same substance. It describes the tendency of fluid
molecules to stick together and resist separation.
When adhesion is greater than cohesion, a liquid wets a solid surface it touches and rises at the
point of contact. This liquid is known as a wetting liquid and its meniscus will be concave.
When adhesion is less than cohesion, the liquid surface will depress at the point of contact. This is
a nonwetting liquid and its meniscus will form a convex.

The rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted into a liquid is called the Capillarity.
The capillary rise (+) or depression (-) in a glass tube is

Where
𝜎 = surface tension
𝜃 = wetting angle
𝛾 = unit weight of liquid
𝑟 = radius of the tube

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  Capillarity is important when using tubes smaller than 3/8 in (9.5 mm) in diameter.
 Meniscus is the term for the curved surface of liquid in a capillary tube.

6. Droplets and Bubbles

Cohesion is responsible for the formation of liquid droplets that naturally form when a liquid is
sprayed into the atmosphere. The cohesion minimizes the shape of any water droplet, and so it forms a
sphere. The pressure inside droplets and bubbles is generally greater than the pressure outside droplets and
bubbles because of surface tension.

Pressure difference in a droplet which has only one surface

Where
𝑝in = internal pressure
𝑝out = external pressure
𝜎 = surface tension
𝑅 = radius of the droplet

Pressure difference in a bubble

Where
𝑝in = internal pressure
𝑝out = external pressure
𝜎 = surface tension
𝑅 = radius of the bubble

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7. Bulk Modulus, Compressibility and Speed of Sound

Bulk Modulus of Elasticity or Bulk Modulus (EB) is a measure of the amount

by which a fluid offers a resistance to compression. It is the ratio of the change
in unit pressure to the corresponding volume change per unit of volume. It is
sometimes referred to as incompressibility.

An idealized cube of fluid is subjected to an incremental force 𝑑𝐹. The

intensity of this force per unit area is the pressure, 𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝐹/𝐴. As a result of
this pressure, the original volume 𝑉 of the cube will decrease by 𝑑𝑉. The
increase in pressure 𝑑𝑝 divided by the decrease in volume per unit volume
𝑑𝑉/𝑉 is known as Bulk Modulus.
𝒅𝒑
EB = – 𝒅𝑽
𝑽

If changes are linear then 𝑑𝑝 = 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 and 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1. The increase in pressure results in a decrease in
volume. In SI units are usually given as N/m2 or Pascal (Pa) and sometimes in MPa or GPa. In English units,
values are usually in lb/in2 (psi).

Compressibility or Coefficient of Compressibility ( β) is defined as the ratio of unit volume change per
unit increase in effective stress. It is the reciprocal Bulk Modulus.
𝒅𝑽
𝑽 𝟏
β=– or
𝒅𝑷 𝐄𝐁

 A substance that is difficult to compress has a large bulk modulus but a small compressibility. A
substance that is easy to compress has a high compressibility but a low bulk modulus.
 dV/V is usually in percent (%)

Speed of Sound (c)

Speed of sound in a fluid medium (gas or liquid) is used as a relative measure for the speed of an object
moving through the medium. It is also called the acoustic velocity or celerity.

𝐄𝐁
c=√
𝛒

 Different fluids, such as gases and liquids, have varying levels of compressibility, which affects how
quickly sound waves can travel through them. For example, sound travels faster in solids compared to
liquids, and faster in liquids compared to gases, largely due to differences in compressibility among
these media.

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