TC REVIEWER

[Link] Thorndike’s Theory of Learning is called the “Trial and Error” Theory or the “Law of
Effect.” He studied how animals learn and found that learning happens through repeated attempts
and rewards.
1. Trial and Error: Learning happens by trying different actions. Some fail, and some succeed.
2. Law of Effect: Actions that bring a reward are repeated, while those that bring discomfort are
avoided.
3. Law of Readiness: Learning is easier when someone is mentally and physically ready.
4. Law of Exercise: The more you practice, the stronger the learning.

[Link] Gagné’s 9 Events of Instruction

GISPPEGA(Steps to Teach Effectively):
1. Gain attention – Start with something interesting.
2. Inform learners of the objective – Tell them what they will learn
3. Stimulate recall of prior knowledge – Connect new learning to what they already know
4. Present the content – Teach the new topic clearly.
5. Provide learning guidance – Give hints, examples, or demonstrations.
6. Elicit performance (Practice) – Let them try the new skill.
7. Give feedback – Correct mistakes and encourage improvement.
8. Assess performance – Test their understanding.
9. Enhance retention and transfer – Help them use what they learned in real life.

8 types of learning conditions:

1. Signal Learning – Basic learning where a person responds to a signal (like
Pavlov’s dog).
2. Stimulus-Response Learning – Learning through rewards and punishments.
3. Chaining – Learning a sequence of steps (e.g., riding a bike).
4. Verbal Association – Learning through words, like memorizing vocabulary.
5. Discrimination Learning – Learning to differentiate between similar things (e.g.,
“b” vs. “d”).
6. Concept Learning – Understanding general ideas (e.g., what makes a triangle a
triangle).
7. Rule Learning – Learning rules and applying them (e.g., grammar rules in
language).
8. Problem-Solving – Applying previous knowledge to new situations.

five major types of learning

1. Intellectual Skills
• Learning how to think, solve problems, and apply rules.
• Example: Solving math problems or recognizing grammar rules.

2. Cognitive Strategies
• Learning how to learn, think critically, and remember information.
• Example: Using mind maps to organize study material.

3. Verbal Information
• Learning facts, names, and organized knowledge.
• Example: Memorizing historical dates or vocabulary words.

4. Motor Skills
• Learning physical movements and coordination.
• Example: Riding a bike or playing the piano.

5. Attitudes
• Learning behaviors, values, and emotional responses.
• Example: Developing a positive attitude toward teamwork or ethical decision-
making.

[Link] “Little Albert” Experiment

Watson’s most famous experiment involved Little Albert, a baby he conditioned to fear a white rat.
• Initially, Albert had no fear of the rat.
• Watson paired the rat with a loud, frightening noise.
• Over time, Albert began to fear the rat, even without the noise.
• This showed that emotions like fear can be learned through conditioning.

[Link] of John Broadus Watson’s Behaviorism

• Laid the foundation for behavioral psychology and behavior modification
techniques.
• Influenced later psychologists like B.F. Skinner (operant conditioning).
• Applied in education, advertising, and therapy (e.g., desensitization for
phobias).

[Link] Taba’s 7 Steps in the Linear Model:

 1. Diagnosis of Needs – Identify what students need to learn based on their
background and challenges.
2. Formulation of Objectives – Set clear learning goals (e.g., what students
should know or be able to do).
3. Selection of Content – Choose relevant topics and concepts that match the
objectives.
4. Organization of Content – Arrange topics in a logical order, from simple to
complex.
5. Selection of Learning Experiences – Choose activities, methods, and
resources to help students learn effectively.
6. Organization of Learning Activities – Structure the activities in a way that
builds on prior knowledge and engages students.
7. Evaluation and Assessment – Measure whether students achieved the
objectives through tests, assignments, or feedback.

[Link] Tyler’s Four Basic Principles of Curriculum Development

1. Purpose or Objectives
• Ask: What should students learn?
• Identify clear learning goals based on student needs and societal demands.
• Example: In a math curriculum, an objective might be “Students will learn how to
solve algebraic equations.”

2. Learning Experiences
• Ask: What activities will help students achieve these objectives?
• Choose teaching methods and experiences that engage students and reinforce
learning.
• Example: Using real-life problems, group discussions, or hands-on projects in a
math class.

3. Organization of Learning Experiences

• Ask: How should these experiences be arranged for effective learning?
• Structure lessons in a logical sequence, from simple to complex.
• Example: Teaching basic arithmetic before introducing algebraic equations.

4. Evaluation
• Ask: How do we know students have learned?
• Use assessments like quizzes, projects, or feedback to measure learning
 outcomes.
• Example: Giving a test on algebra to check students’ understanding.

[Link] Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

1. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.

• Example: Food makes a dog salivate.
2. Unconditioned Response (UCR): A natural, automatic reaction to the UCS.
• Example: Dog’s salivation in response to food.
3. Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially has no effect.
• Example: A bell (before conditioning).
4. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The neutral stimulus becomes a learned stimulus
after being paired with the UCS multiple times.
• Example: The bell (after being repeatedly paired with food).
5. Conditioned Response (CR): A learned response to the conditioned stimulus.
• Example: The dog salivates when hearing the bell, even without food.

Ivan Pavlov’s Dog Experiment:

1. Before Conditioning:
• Food (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)
• Bell (NS) → No response
2. During Conditioning:
• Bell (NS) + Food (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)
• Repeated several times.
3. After Conditioning:
• Bell (CS) → Salivation (CR)

Now, the dog associates the bell with food and salivates even when no food is
present.

Goleman’s Five Components of Emotional Intelligence:

1. Self-Awareness – Understanding your own emotions and their impact on
others.
• Example: Knowing when you’re stressed and how it affects your decisions.
2. Self-Regulation – Controlling your emotions, avoiding impulsive reactions.
• Example: Staying calm during an argument instead of shouting.
3. Self Motivation – Using emotions to achieve goals and stay persistent.
• Example: Working hard despite setbacks because you’re passionate about
 success.
4. Empathy – Understanding and sharing the feelings of others.
• Example: Comforting a friend who is sad because you can sense their
emotions.
5. Relationship Management – Managing relationships, resolving conflicts, and
working well with others.
• Example: A leader inspiring teamwork and communication among
employees.

[Link] theory, developed by Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka,

Gestalt Laws of Perception:

These laws explain how our brain organizes visual information:

Law of Proximity – Objects close to each other are seen as a group.
Law of Similarity – Similar-looking objects are grouped together.
Law of Closure – We fill in missing parts to complete an image.
Law of Continuity – Our eyes follow smooth paths rather than abrupt changes.

[Link] Frederic Skinner Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement (Increases Behavior)

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding a reward to encourage behavior.
• Example: Giving a child candy for finishing homework.
• Negative Reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant to encourage
behavior.
• Example: A car stops beeping when you wear your seatbelt.
2. Punishment (Decreases Behavior)
• Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant consequence to reduce
behavior.
• Example: A student gets extra homework for being late to class.
• Negative Punishment: Removing something desirable to reduce behavior.
• Example: Taking away a teenager’s phone for bad behavior.
3. Shaping: Teaching a new behavior by rewarding small steps toward the final
goal.
• Example: Teaching a dog to roll over by rewarding each movement leading
to the full roll.
4. Schedules of Reinforcement:
 • Continuous Reinforcement: Rewarding every time the behavior occurs
(good for learning new skills).
• Intermittent Reinforcement: Rewarding only sometimes (makes behavior
more lasting).

[Link] Ausubel’s Meaningful Learning Theory

1. Derivative Subsumption (Adding Specific Details)
• When new information is directly related to an existing concept but adds more
specific details.
• Example: If a student knows that birds can fly, learning that sparrows are birds
that fly is derivative subsumption.

2. Correlative Subsumption (Expanding Knowledge)

• When new information modifies or extends an existing concept by adding new
properties.
• Example: A student who knows birds fly learns that penguins are birds that
cannot fly—this modifies their understanding of birds.

3. Superordinate Subsumption (Generalizing Knowledge)

• When a person learns a new, broader concept that includes ideas they already
knew.
• Example: A child knows about apples and oranges but later learns they
both belong to the category “fruits”—this is superordinate subsumption.

[Link] Heinrich Pestalozzi’s Educational Philosophy

1. Theory of Value (Axiology) – What is Worth Knowing?

• Pestalozzi believed education should develop the whole child—not just
academic knowledge but also moral values and practical skills.
• Important values: Love, kindness, independence, and self-reliance.
• Example: Teaching children cooperation and kindness along with reading and
writing.

2. Theory of Knowledge (Epistemology) – How Do We Know Things?

• He emphasized that knowledge comes from experience rather than
memorization.
 • Learning should move from simple to complex, starting with real-life objects
before abstract ideas.
• Example: Teaching math by counting physical objects before introducing
numbers on paper.

3. Theory of Human Nature – What is a Human Being?

• Pestalozzi believed humans are naturally good, but their environment shapes
them.
• Every child has an inner potential that education should nurture.
• Example: He rejected harsh discipline and believed love and care bring out the
best in children.

4. Theory of Learning – How Do People Learn?

• Learning should be child-centered, active, and hands-on.
• The “Head, Heart, and Hand” approach balances thinking, feeling, and doing.
• Example: Instead of just teaching about plants from a book, students should
grow their own plants to learn by experience.

5. Theory of Transmission – How is Knowledge Passed On?

• Teachers should guide and nurture, not just lecture.
• Learning by doing is more effective than rote memorization.
• Example: A teacher shows children how to build a house with bricks, teaching
them math, teamwork, and responsibility.

6. Theory of Society – What is the Role of Education in Society?

• Education should prepare children to be good citizens who contribute positively
to society.
• Focused on helping the poor get an education to break the cycle of poverty.
• Example: He created schools that taught both academic subjects and life
skills like farming and crafts.
⸻

7. Theory of Consensus – What Do People Agree On?

• Society should agree on universal values like love, justice, and cooperation.
• Education should be inclusive, benefiting all children, not just the wealthy.
• Example: He believed education should be free and accessible to every
child, rich or poor.