Section 2:
Digital Logic
1. Boolean Algebra
Boolean algebra is a mathematical structure used for manipulating logical variables. It forms the
basis for designing digital circuits and logical systems.
Basic Operations:
• AND ( ∧ ): Output is true (1) if both operands are true.
o A ∧ B = 1 if A = 1 and B = 1, otherwise 0.
• OR ( ∨ ): Output is true if at least one operand is true.
o A ∨ B = 1 if A = 1 or B = 1, or both.
• NOT ( ¬ ): Output is the negation of the operand.
o ¬A = 1 if A = 0, and ¬A = 0 if A = 1.
Laws of Boolean Algebra:
• Identity Law: A ∧ 1 = A, A ∨ 0 = A
• Null Law: A ∧ 0 = 0, A ∨ 1 = 1
• Idempotent Law: A ∧ A = A, A ∨ A = A
• Complement Law: A ∧ ¬A = 0, A ∨ ¬A = 1
• Distributive Law: A ∧ (B ∨ C) = (A ∧ B) ∨ (A ∧ C)
• De Morgan's Law: ¬(A ∧ B) = ¬A ∨ ¬B, ¬(A ∨ B) = ¬A ∧ ¬B
Example:
Simplify the Boolean expression:
A ∧ (A ∨ B)
• Using Distributive Law: A ∧ (A ∨ B) = A
• Result: A
2. Combinational Circuits
Combinational circuits are circuits whose output is determined solely by the current input values,
without any memory or feedback loops.
Basic Combinational Circuits:
• AND, OR, NOT gates: These gates are the fundamental building blocks of combinational
circuits.
• XOR (Exclusive OR): The output is true when the number of true inputs is odd.
o A ⊕ B = 1 if A ≠ B, otherwise 0.
• Multiplexer (MUX): A MUX selects one of many inputs based on a control signal.
• Demultiplexer (DEMUX): A DEMUX sends a single input to one of many outputs based on a
control signal.
• Decoder: Converts a binary value into a set of outputs. Often used in memory addressing.
• Encoder: Converts a set of inputs into a binary code.
Example:
A 2-to-1 MUX selects between two inputs A and B based on a control signal S:
• Output = (A AND NOT S) OR (B AND S)
3. Sequential Circuits
Sequential circuits have memory, meaning their output depends not only on the current inputs but
also on the history of inputs. These circuits use flip-flops to store state information.
Types of Sequential Circuits:
• Flip-Flops: Basic memory elements that store a single bit of information.
o SR Flip-Flop: Has Set (S) and Reset (R) inputs.
o D Flip-Flop: Stores the value of the input at the clock edge.
o JK Flip-Flop: A more flexible flip-flop that can toggle its state.
o T Flip-Flop: Toggles the state on each clock cycle.
Clocking:
Sequential circuits rely on a clock signal to synchronize the changes in state. On each clock pulse, the
flip-flops update their stored values based on inputs.
Registers:
A group of flip-flops used to store multi-bit values. They can be used for temporary storage, shifting,
and data transfer.
Example:
• D Flip-Flop: The output (Q) follows the input (D) when the clock (CLK) is active.
o Q = D when CLK = 1
4. Minimization
Minimization is the process of simplifying Boolean expressions or circuits to reduce their complexity
(i.e., the number of gates or the number of terms). The goal is to reduce the number of logic gates,
thereby reducing hardware costs and improving performance.
Karnaugh Map (K-map):
A K-map is a graphical tool used for simplifying Boolean expressions. It helps in identifying patterns
and combining terms to minimize the expression.
• 1-variable K-map: A 2x1 grid.
• 2-variable K-map: A 2x2 grid.
• 3-variable K-map: A 2x4 grid.
• 4-variable K-map: A 4x4 grid.
Example:
Simplify the Boolean expression using a K-map:
F(A, B, C) = Σ(1, 3, 7)
Create a K-map, group the ones in the map, and write the simplified Boolean expression based on
the groups.
Quine–McCluskey Algorithm:
This is a tabular method used for simplifying Boolean expressions, especially for functions with more
variables.
5. Number Representations and Computer Arithmetic
Number representations in computers involve encoding numerical values in binary, decimal, and
other bases. Computers use binary (base-2) as their internal number system.
Fixed Point Representation:
In fixed-point representation, the number of digits to the right of the decimal point is fixed. For
example:
• In an 8-bit fixed-point representation, we may have 4 bits for the integer part and 4 bits for
the fractional part.
Example:
In an 8-bit fixed-point representation of 4.5, it would be represented as 0100.1000 (binary), where
the point is fixed after 4 bits.
Floating Point Representation:
Floating-point representation is used for representing real numbers (including very large or very
small numbers) using scientific notation in binary.
• IEEE 754 is the standard for floating-point representation.
• It consists of three parts:
1. Sign bit: Indicates if the number is positive or negative.
2. Exponent: Represents the magnitude of the number.
3. Mantissa (Fraction): Represents the precision of the number.
Example:
The number -6.25 in IEEE 32-bit single-precision floating-point format is represented as:
• Sign: 1 (negative)
• Exponent: 10000001
• Mantissa: 10010000000000000000000
Arithmetic Operations:
• Addition/Subtraction: Involves aligning the decimal point (for fixed-point) or exponents (for
floating-point).
• Multiplication: Involves adding the exponents (for floating-point) or multiplying the integers
and fractions separately.
• Division: Involves subtracting the exponents (for floating-point) or dividing the integers and
fractions.
Summary
• Boolean Algebra forms the basis of digital logic and helps in simplifying logical expressions.
• Combinational Circuits perform logical operations based solely on current inputs.
• Sequential Circuits store previous states and produce outputs based on both the current and
past inputs.
• Minimization techniques such as K-maps and the Quine–McCluskey algorithm help in
simplifying Boolean expressions to optimize digital circuits.
• Number Representations in computers (fixed-point and floating-point) are essential for
efficient numerical computation and arithmetic in digital systems.
Understanding these fundamental concepts is key to designing efficient digital circuits and systems,
which are the building blocks of modern computing devices.
