Measurement and Sensor meishu 273 pc

Unit 3 : Displacement Measurement

Displacement measurement using resistive devices like potentiometers is common in

various applications. Here’s an overview of how linear and rotary potentiometers can be
used for this purpose:

Displacement Measurement with Potentiometers

1. Linear Potentiometers
 Operation: Linear potentiometers consist of a resistive element that has a wiper
sliding along its length. As the wiper moves, it changes the resistance between
the wiper and the two ends of the potentiometer.
 Measurement: The position of the wiper correlates directly with the
displacement of the object being measured. This change in resistance can be
converted to a voltage output, which can then be measured to determine
displacement.
  Applications:
o Linear position sensors in industrial machinery.
o Slide rules in laboratory instruments.
o Displacement sensors in robotics and automation.

2. Rotary Potentiometers
 Operation: Rotary potentiometers have a resistive element arranged in a circular
shape, and the wiper rotates around this element. The resistance changes as the
wiper moves, correlating with the angle of rotation.
 Measurement: The angular position can be translated into a linear displacement
measurement if the mechanism is designed accordingly, using geometric
relationships.
 Applications:
o Angle measurement in robotic arms.
o Control knobs for various electronic devices.
o Position sensing in automotive applications.

Displacement measurement using inductive transducers, such as Linear

Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs) and eddy current sensors, is common
in various industrial applications. Here’s an overview of both types:

1. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

 Principle of Operation:
o An LVDT consists of a primary coil and two secondary coils arranged
symmetrically around a movable ferromagnetic core.
o When an AC voltage is applied to the primary coil, it creates a magnetic
field that induces voltages in the secondary coils. The position of the core
a ects the balance of these induced voltages.
 Measurement:
o The output voltage from the secondary coils varies based on the position
of the core, providing a linear relationship with displacement. The
di erence in the voltages from the two secondary coils is used to
determine the displacement direction and magnitude.
  Applications:
o Position sensing in industrial machinery.
o Displacement measurement in aerospace and automotive testing.
o Feedback systems in robotics.
 Advantages:
o High accuracy and repeatability.
o Excellent linearity over a wide range.
o Contactless measurement, reducing wear.
 Limitations:
o Requires AC excitation.
o Sensitive to temperature variations and external magnetic fields.

2. Eddy Current Transducers

 Principle of Operation:
o Eddy current sensors measure displacement by inducing eddy currents in
a conductive target material. When the sensor moves closer or farther
from the target, the change in distance alters the eddy current flow and,
consequently, the impedance of the sensor.
 Measurement:
o The change in impedance is translated into a voltage signal, which
correlates with the displacement of the target. This can be done without
contact, making it ideal for applications where physical contact could
cause damage.
 Applications:
o Non-contact position and displacement measurement in manufacturing.
o Proximity sensing in automation systems.
o Measurement of small displacements in research and testing.
 Advantages:
o Non-contact measurement allows for wear-free operation.
o High resolution and fast response times.
o Less sensitive to environmental conditions compared to other sensors.
  Limitations:
o Limited range; typically e ective only for small displacements.
o Requires conductive materials for accurate measurement.

Capacitive transducers are e ective for displacement measurement due to their

sensitivity and accuracy. Here’s an overview of capacitance pickups and di erential
capacitive cells:

1. Capacitance Pickups
 Principle of Operation:

 Measurement:
o The change in capacitance is converted into a voltage signal, which
correlates with the displacement. This setup can be used in both contact
and non-contact measurements depending on the design.
 Applications:

o Non-contact displacement measurements in precision engineering.

o Sensors in industrial automation for position feedback.
o Touch and proximity sensors.
 Advantages:
o High sensitivity to small displacements.
o Non-contact measurement capabilities, reducing wear and tear.
o Good frequency response.
  Limitations:
o Sensitive to environmental conditions, such as humidity and
temperature.
o Calibration may be required to account for variations in the dielectric
material.

2. Differential Capacitive Cells

 Principle of Operation:
o Di erential capacitive cells consist of two capacitors arranged such that
the displacement causes a di erence in capacitance between them. This
can be achieved by having two separate capacitor plates, one fixed and
one movable, or by using two plates with a common dielectric.
 Measurement:
o The output is based on the di erence in capacitance between the two
cells, which enhances sensitivity and allows for the cancellation of
common-mode errors (e.g., temperature e ects). This results in a more
stable and accurate measurement of displacement.
 Applications:
o High-precision displacement measurements in research and industry.
o Level measurement in tanks and containers.
o Sensors in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS).
 Advantages:
o Improved accuracy and stability compared to single capacitance pickups.
o Can e ectively cancel out noise and environmental e ects.
o Suitable for measuring small displacements with high resolution.
 Limitations:
o More complex circuitry is required for signal processing.
o Calibration and alignment are crucial for accurate measurements.
Displacement measurement can also be achieved using piezoelectric sensors,
ultrasonic transducers, Hall e ect transducers, and optical transducers. Here’s an
overview of each type:

1. Piezoelectric Transducers
 Principle of Operation:
o Piezoelectric materials generate an electric charge in response to
mechanical stress. When these materials are deformed (e.g., by
displacement), they produce a voltage proportional to the amount of
deformation.
 Measurement:
o The generated voltage is measured to determine the displacement.
Piezoelectric sensors are particularly e ective for dynamic
measurements (e.g., vibrations).
 Applications:
o Vibration and pressure sensing in industrial applications.
o Displacement measurement in structural health monitoring.
o Force sensors in robotics.
 Advantages:
o High sensitivity and fast response times.
o Wide frequency range for dynamic measurements.
 Limitations:
o Generally sensitive to temperature changes and require careful
calibration.
o Limited in measuring static displacement since they only respond to
changes in pressure or force.

2. Ultrasonic Transducers
 Principle of Operation:
o Ultrasonic transducers emit high-frequency sound waves. By measuring
the time, it takes for the sound waves to travel to an object and back
(echo), the distance (and thus displacement) can be calculated.
  Measurement:
o The distance is calculated using the formula:

 Applications:
o Level measurement in tanks and containers.
o Distance measurement in automotive and industrial applications.
o Object detection and proximity sensing.
 Advantages:
o Non-contact measurement, minimizing wear.
o Can measure distances over a wide range.
 Limitations:
o Performance can be a ected by environmental factors, such as
temperature and humidity.
o Surface texture and shape of the target can influence accuracy.

3. Hall Effect Transducers

 Principle of Operation:
o Hall e ect transducers measure the voltage di erence (Hall voltage)
generated across a conductor when it is placed in a magnetic field. The
voltage is proportional to the magnetic field strength, which can be used
to infer position or displacement.
 Measurement:
o The sensor can be used to measure linear or rotary displacement by
tracking changes in the magnetic field as an object moves.
 Applications:
o Rotary position sensors in automotive applications (e.g., throttle position
sensors).
o Linear displacement measurement in industrial automation.
o Current sensing and control in electric motors.
  Advantages:
o Non-contact measurement and durability.
o Good linearity and repeatability.
 Limitations:

o Dependence on the presence of a magnetic field; requires magnets.

o Limited resolution compared to other types of sensors.

4. Optical Transducers
 Principle of Operation:
o Optical transducers measure displacement by detecting changes in light
(typically lasers) reflected from an object. The position can be determined
based on the amount and angle of light reflected back to the sensor.
 Measurement:
o Techniques such as triangulation or interferometry can be used to
calculate displacement based on light patterns.
 Applications:
o High-precision measurements in manufacturing and research.
o 3D scanning and surface profiling.
o Position feedback in robotics.
 Advantages:
o Extremely high accuracy and resolution.
o Non-contact measurement capabilities.
 Limitations:
o Performance can be a ected by environmental conditions (e.g., dust,
fog).
o More complex setups and typically higher cost.