134 Rock Strength and Sand Production Prediction
Brinell hardness [the force required to indent a small ball into the rock surface,
Section 8.2.2 (Chapter 8)], an accurate scratch test (Suárez-Rivera et al., 2003) and
an impact test called the Schmidt hammer test (Taylor and Appleby, 2006). These
techniques can be used to create near continuous strength profiles from cores when
calibrated to the larger-scale strength results. Tronvoll et al. (2004) report being able
to identify far weaker intervals using the scratch technique than had previously been
anticipated on the Varg field in Norway. These methods are also useful for selecting
which intervals to subject to larger-scale tests such as a TWC test.
While collecting UCS or TWC strength measurements, strain data can also be
collected to assess the modulus of elasticity (E or Young’s modulus) and Poisson’s
ratio (m). These measurements are needed in modelling deformation on holes and
are also essential for fracture-stimulation modelling. Properties such as Young’s
modulus can also be obtained indirectly from logs, providing a further opportunity
to calibrate log-derived data with core data.
[Link]. Log-derived strength measurements
Log data can be used to assess rock strength. Logs are best used when calibrated to
core data as there is no direct relationship between any wireline-derived data and
rock strength (Simangunsong et al., 2006). The advantage of log-derived
measurements is that they are cheap and simple and routinely obtained across the
reservoir section for other reasons. Because they are near-continuous measurements,
once tuned, they provide a profile of the strength through the reservoir.
The two most common wireline logs used for strength determination are
porosity (either neutron or density logs) and the sonic log. These logs are routinely
run by measurement while drilling (MWD) or by a dedicated wireline run. There
are a large number of relationships available between porosity and rock strength
(Sarda et al., 1993; Edlmann et al., 1998). Sarda, for example, recommends for
undamaged rocks that the UCS is a simple function of porosity:
sUCS ¼ 37418 expð9fÞ (3.2)
where sUCS is the uniaxial compressive strength (psia) and f the porosity (fraction).
Given the role that cement plays in rock strength, these relationships are not
universal, but they were developed from a large database.
The speed of sound through a rock is greater if it is well cemented, as sound
travels much faster through a solid than a liquid. In addition, the more direct the
travel path through the rock, the faster the speed of sound will be. A general
relationship is velocity cubed, or slightly more accurately as defined by Horsrud
(2001) when converted to oilfield units:
304:8 2:93
sUCS ¼ 111:65 (3.3)
Dt
where Dt is the slowness (inverse of speed) in ms/ft for the p-wave. Note that this
relationship was derived specifically for shales, although it is sometimes applied to
other rock types.
Several other relationships are functions of parameters such as Young’s modulus
(E), Poisson’s ratio (m) and the bulk modulus (Kb). These properties can be derived
