Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

CLASSIFYING COMPRESSORS BY TYPE

Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.

Chapter : Mechanical For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: MEX-212.01 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
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Section Page

INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 4
CLASSIFYING DYNAMIC COMPRESSORS BY TYPES ............................................... 6
Centrifugal ............................................................................................................ 7
Barrel ......................................................................................................... 9
Axially Split .............................................................................................. 12
Integrally Geared ..................................................................................... 14
Single-Stage Blower ................................................................................ 17
Axial.................................................................................................................... 18
Multi-Stage............................................................................................... 18
Single-Stage (Fans) ................................................................................. 21
CLASSIFYING POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS BY TYPE................... 23
Reciprocating...................................................................................................... 24
Single-Acting............................................................................................ 25
Double-Acting .......................................................................................... 27
Dry/Lubricated ......................................................................................... 28
Rotary................................................................................................................. 29
Screw....................................................................................................... 30
Lobe......................................................................................................... 33
Liquid-Ring............................................................................................... 34
Sliding-Vane ............................................................................................ 35
WORK AIDS.................................................................................................................. 37
WORK AID 1: ILLUSTRATIONS USED TO CLASSIFY DYNAMIC
COMPRESSORS BY TYPE ................................................................... 37
WORK AID 2: DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS BY TYPE
ILLUSTRATIONS USED TO CLASSIFY POSITIVE-.............................. 43
GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................. 48

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Compressor Application Range Chart............................................................. 5

Figure 2. Single-Stage, Single-Flow Centrifugal Compressor ........................................ 8
Figure 3. Typical, Multi-Stage, Barrel Compressor....................................................... 10
Figure 4. Typical, Multi-Stage, Axially Split, Centrifugal Compressor........................... 13
Figure 5. Typical, Integrally Geared Centrifugal Compressor....................................... 16
Figure 6. Single-Stage Blower...................................................................................... 17
Figure 7. Multi-Stage Axial Compressor....................................................................... 20
Figure 8. Single-Stage Axial Compressor .................................................................... 22
Figure 9. Single-Acting Reciprocating Compressor....................................................... 26
Figure 10. Double-Acting, Reciprocating Compressor .................................................. 28
Figure 11. Lubricated Screw Compressor .................................................................... 32
Figure 12. Dry Screw Compressor ............................................................................... 32
Figure 13. Two-Lobe Compressor................................................................................ 34
Figure 14. Liquid-Ring Compressor ............................................................................. 35
Figure 15. Sliding-Vane Compressor ........................................................................... 36
Figure 24. Integrally Geared, Centrifugal Compressor ................................................. 37
Figure 25. Multi-Stage, Axially Split, Centrifugal Compressor ...................................... 38
Figure 26. Single-Stage Blower.................................................................................... 39
Figure 27. Multi-Stage, Barrel, Centrifugal Compressor............................................... 40
Figure 28. Single-Stage, Axial Compressor ................................................................. 41
Figure 29. Multi-Stage, Axial Compressor.................................................................... 42
Figure 30. Liquid-Ring, Rotary Compressor ................................................................. 43
Figure 31. Dry Screw Compressor ............................................................................... 44
Figure 32. Lubricated Screw Compressor .................................................................... 45
Figure 33. Sliding-Vane, Rotary Compressor............................................................... 46
Figure 34. Two-Lobe, Rotary Compressor ................................................................... 47
Figure 35. Double-Acting, Reciprocating Compressor ................................................. 47

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Centrifugal and Axial Compressors............ 7

Table 2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Reciprocating and Rotary Positive-
Displacement Compressors ............................................................................ 24

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INTRODUCTION
A compressor is defined as a device that causes a reduction in
volume and an increase in the pressure of a gas. A compressor
moves a gas through a process system by increasing the
energy and the density of the gas. Because the action of a
compressor is similar to a pump, a compressor can be
considered a gas pump. One of the most important effects of
an increase in gas energy is pressure. The amount of pressure
increase above the pressure of the incoming gas depends on
the design and size of the compressor that is used. Because
gas is compressible, its volume will decrease as its energy is
increased. As the gas is compressed, the absolute pressure
and volume vary inversely. If the temperature of a gas remains
constant, which is an ideal situation, and if the volume of that
gas is reduced by one half, the pressure will double.

The use of compressors had expanded widely in industrial

applications. Figure 1 is an application range chart for the
various specific types of compressors, which shows discharge
pressure (psig) versus inlet flow (ACFM). Refer to Figure 1 for
the discussions of the various compressors. With many
manufacturers developing new and more efficient compressors,
the Mechanical Engineer must understand the types, the usage,
and the limitations that are placed on the different varieties of
compressors. Because Saudi Aramco uses both dynamic and
positive-displacement compressors, this module focuses on the
different compressor designs that are available. This module
describes the following topics that are pertinent to classifying
compressors by type:
• Classifying Dynamic Compressors by Types
• Classifying Positive-Displacement Compressors by Types

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Figure 1. Compressor Application Range Chart

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CLASSIFYING DYNAMIC COMPRESSORS BY TYPES

Dynamic compression is defined as the compression of a gas
with continuous flow and that is due to the interaction between
rotating vanes and the gas. Dynamic compressors develop a
pressure differential by the mechanical action of rotating vanes
or impellers that impart velocity to the continuously flowing gas.
The velocity is then converted to increased pressure as the gas
is slowed down in a controlled manner. The slowdown of the
gas flow is accomplished through a restriction in the path
through which the gas has to travel. As the size of the
discharge path size decreases, the pressure of the gas
increases.

The dynamic compressor depends on motion to transfer energy

from the compressor’s rotor to the process gas. The
characteristics of compression vary in accordance with the
density of gas that is compressed. There is no “containment” of
the gas as in positive-displacement compressors; therefore, the
flow of gas is continuous. The following types of dynamic
compressors are discussed in this section:
• Centrifugal
• Axial

The basic difference between a centrifugal compressor and an

axial compressor is the manner in which the continuous flow of
gas passes through the compressor. A centrifugal compressor
acts on a gas through use of blades on a rotating impeller. The
flow in a centrifugal compressor is radially through each
impeller. The rotary motion of the gas results in an outward
velocity due to centrifugal forces. The tangential component of
the outward velocity is transformed to pressure by a diffuser.
The flow in an axial compressor, as its name implies, is parallel
to the machine axis. An axial compressor acts on a gas through
use of a series of rotating blades and stationary blades. The lift
and drag coefficients of shapes of the blades determine the
compressor’s characteristics.

Although centrifugal and axial compressors fall under the same

classification, the differences in their construction and design
offer distinct advantages and disadvantages. Table 1 shows the
advantages and disadvantages of centrifugal and axial
compressors.

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Compressor Type Advantages Disadvantages

Centrifugal Wide operating range Unstable at low flow

Low Maintenance Moderate efficiency
High Reliability
Axial High efficiency Low pressure ratio per stage
Higher flow for given size Narrow flow range
Fragile and expensive blading
Also unstable at low flows

Table 1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Centrifugal and Axial Compressors

Centrifugal
Centrifugal compressors are the most common type of dynamic
compressors. Centrifugal compressors operate on the principle
of imparting velocity to a gas stream and then converting this
velocity energy into pressure energy. Centrifugal compressors
are designed as single or multi-staged and are driven directly by
a prime mover or through gearing.

An operational description of a simple centrifugal compressor

illustrates the relationship between gas pressure and flow.
Figure 2 shows a single-stage, single-flow centrifugal
compressor with the impeller overhung on a motor. This single-
flow unit consists of the inlet nozzle, the impeller, the diffuser,
the volute, the discharge nozzle, and the driver (not shown).
The gas enters the compressor through the inlet nozzle, which
is proportioned to permit the gas to enter the impeller with
minimum shock and turbulence. The impeller receives the gas
from the inlet nozzle and dynamically compresses it. The
impeller also sets the gas in motion and gives it a velocity that is
slightly more than the tip speed of the impeller. The diffuser
surrounds the impeller and serves to gradually reduce the
velocity of the gas (kinetic energy) into pressure (potential
energy). The volute casing surrounds the diffuser and collects
the gas. From the volute, the gas exits the compressor through
the discharge nozzle. Some discharge nozzles act as conical
diffusers, and they further reduce the velocity of the gas to the

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final discharge flange velocity.

Figure 2. Single-Stage, Single-Flow Centrifugal Compressor

As shown in the application range chart, single-stage centrifugal

compressors would normally have an application that ranges
between 90 and 150,000 inlet ACFM at 2 to 2,000 psig
discharge pressure. Multi-stage centrifugal compressors would
normally have an application that ranges between 900 and
200,000 inlet ACFM at 3 to 9,500 psig discharge pressure.

The following types of centrifugal compressors are discussed in

this section of the module:
• Barrel
• Axially Split
• Integrally Geared

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• Single-Stage Blower

Barrel

A typical, multi-stage, barrel-type centrifugal compressor is

shown in Figure 3. Barrel compressor casings can be of either
forged steel, cast steel, or fabricated steel; however, if the
relative molecular mass specified is less than 14, or if the
maximum allowable working pressure exceeds 1000 psig, Saudi
Aramco requires that the casing be made of forged steel. The
compressor casing is constructed as a complete cylinder, but at
least one end of the compressor is removable to allow access to
internal components. Barrel-type centrifugal compressors are
also referred to as radially split centrifugal compressors.
Sufficient space must be allowed at the rear of the compressor
for the removal of internal components.

Major Components - The following major components, which are

discussed in detail in module 212.03, are noted here for
purposes of identification:
• Casing
• Inlet Nozzle
• Impeller
• Impeller Labyrinth Seals
• Diffuser
• Crossover
• Return Channel
• Discharge Nozzle
• Balance Piston Assembly
• Rotor Assembly
• Bearing Assemblies (Thrust and Journal Ends)
• Seal Assembly
• Inner Barrel

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Figure 3. Typical, Multi-Stage, Barrel Compressor

Operation - In the operation of a barrel compressor, the gas

enters the inlet nozzle at approximately 125 ft/sec, where the
gas is accelerated to approximately 250 ft/sec. The gas is
directed to the blades of the impeller to be further accelerated to
approximately 800 ft/sec, depending upon impeller design, and
discharged to the diffuser that surrounds the impeller. The
diffuser gradually reduces the velocity of the gas to
approximately 250 ft/sec to convert the velocity energy to
pressure. In a single-stage barrel compressor, the gas exits the
diffuser through a volute casing that surrounds the diffuser. The
volute casing collects the gas, and a further reduction in velocity
of the gas to approximately 125 ft/sec may occur in the
discharge nozzle. The gas exits through the discharge nozzle.
In a multi-stage barrel compressor, the gas exits the diffuser
and enters return channels. The return channels direct the gas
into the impeller of the next stage.

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Applications - The application range chart that was shown

previously in Figure 1 shows discharge pressure (psig) versus
inlet flow (ACFM) for centrifugal compressors. Because of the
barrel design, barrel compressors, instead of axially split
centrifugal compressors, are normally selected for higher
pressure applications or for certain lower mole gas compositions
(hydrogen gas mixtures). Examples of Saudi Aramco
applications where barrel compressors are used are as follows:
• Sales Gas Compressors
• Gas Plant Compressors
• Gas Re-Injection Compressors
• Refinery Applications (Reformer and Hydrocracker Recycle)

The main reason for the use of barrel compressors in higher

pressure applications is frame joint sealing. Applications in
which low mole gas compositions are compressed require the
use of an impeller with a larger than normal flow area. This
arrangement requires the use of more than the usual number of
stages for a given head requirement since the density of the gas
is low relative to other gases, and larger frame size for the flow
that is handled.

The increase in frame size greatly impacts the amount of

internal stresses on the casing, especially at the joint flanges,
and the required bolt loading of an axial split compressor. The
available space for bolting the casing halves of an axially split
compressor is further restricted at the two shaft penetrations.
To achieve the required tightness, a high contact pressure at
the flange joints is required. The necessary forces in the bolts
are often higher than would be required by the static gas forces
if the casing flanges were perfectly rigid and flat; therefore, the
barrel design is used for large compressor frame sizes and high
pressure applications.

Barrel compressors are also used in these applications because

the barrel design has circular casing joints or flanges with a
perfectly even load distribution. The leakage of gas at the two
covers can effectively be prevented by the metal-to-metal
contact and endless O-rings that are inserted into grooves on
the end cap. By monitoring the pressure between two adjacent

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O-rings, the tightness of the seal can be controlled. The barrel

design has the advantage of positive sealing, which prevents
leakage of toxic, flammable, and explosive gases. For this
reason, Saudi Aramco Standards specify radially split casing
construction for gases that contain hydrogen if the hydrogen
partial pressure exceeds 200 psig.

Axially Split

A typical, multi-stage, axially (horizontally) split, centrifugal

compressor is shown in Figure 4. The casing is divided into
upper and lower halves along the horizontal centerline of the
compressor. The axially split casing allows access to the
internal components of the compressor without disturbing the
rotor-to-casing clearances or the bearing alignment. If possible,
process piping nozzles should be mounted on the lower half of
the compressor casing to allow disassembly of the compressor
without removal of the process piping.

Major Components - The following major components, which are

discussed in detail in Module 212.03, are noted for purposes of
identification:
• Inlet Nozzle
• Impeller
• Impeller Labyrinth Seals
• Diffuser
• Crossover
• Return Channel
• Discharge Nozzle
• Balance Piston Assembly
• Rotor Assembly
• Bearing and Seal Assemblies (Thrust and Journal Ends)
• Side-Load Nozzles

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Figure 4. Typical, Multi-Stage, Axially Split, Centrifugal Compressor

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Operation - The operation of an axially split compressor is the

same as the operation of the barrel compressor pertaining to the
gas flowpath and gas velocities. The incoming gas is
accelerated through the inlet nozzle to the impeller. A diffuser
surrounds the impeller; the diffuser serves to gradually reduce
the velocity of the gas as the gas leaves the impeller, and it
converts the velocity energy to pressure. In a multi-stage,
axially split compressor, the gas exits the diffuser and enters
return channels. The return channels direct the gas into the
impeller of the next stage.

Applications - The application range chart that was previously

shown in Figure 1 shows discharge pressure (psig) versus inlet
flow (ACFM) for axially split, centrifugal compressors.

Some examples of Saudi Aramco applications for axially split,

centrifugal compressors are as follows:
• GOSP Compressors
• Vapor Recovery Compressors
• Refrigeration Compressors
• Refinery Applications (Offgas, Wet Gas, and Process Air)

Integrally Geared

Integrally geared compressors have a low-speed (bull) gear that

drives two or more high-speed pinions (rotors). The pinion sizes
vary to allow for different rotation speeds. Impellers are
mounted at one end or both ends of each rotor. The rotors
typically operate at speeds between 25,000 and 50,000 rpm.
The overhung impeller design often uses an open impeller
construction that consists of a disc and blades, without an
impeller cover. This type of impeller is characterized by an
inducer section that directs the gas flow into the eye of the
impeller. The detail in Figure 5 shows an inducer impeller. The
blades of an inducer impeller extend down around the hub
radius so that the gas first encounters the blade pack while
flowing axially. Inducer impellers reduce the inlet speed of the
gas for a given flow and speed; therefore, inducer impellers can
operate at a faster speed with a greater head output

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Each impeller has its own volute casing which contains the
diffuser and the discharge volute and that is bolted to the gear
casing. To allow access to the gears, the gear casing may be
horizontally or vertically split.

Major Components - The following major components, which are

discussed in Module 212.03, are noted for purposes of
identification:
• Volute Casing
• Stage Casing
• Stage Inlet Nozzle
• Stage Impeller
• Diffuser
• Stage Discharge Nozzle
• Bull Gear
• Pinion Gear

Operation - The gas enters the compressor through the first-

stage inlet nozzle to the impeller. Because of the inducer
impeller design, the gas initially flows axially around the impeller
hub. The gas then begins to flow radially from the impeller as it
approaches the impeller disc. The impeller dynamically
compresses the gas and discharges it to the diffuser. The
diffuser surrounds the impeller and gradually reduces the
velocity of the gas as it leaves the impeller, which is shown in
Figure 5. The gas exits the diffuser through a volute casing.
The volute casing collects the gas, further reduces the velocity
of the gas, and recovers additional velocity energy. The gas
exits the first stage through the first-stage discharge nozzle,
enters an intercooler (not shown), and is then piped to the
second stage. The discharge from the second stage enters an
intercooler (not shown) and is then piped to the third stage.
After the third stage, the gas is discharged to the downstream
piping. Gas velocities are approximately for barrel compressor
and axially split compressors.

Applications. Integrally geared centrifugal compressors are

generally used for plant and instrument air applications that
require volumes in the range of 1000 to 30,000 ACFM and
discharge pressures in the range of 100 to 125 psig.

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Figure 5. Typical, Integrally Geared Centrifugal Compressor

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Single-Stage
Blower

A single-stage blower, which is shown in Figure 6, contains an

impeller that is located inside a housing. The impeller is
mounted on a shaft (not shown) and rotates inside the blower
housing. The impeller is turned either by a direct drive system
or by a pulley and belt drive system if the horsepower is below
125. A single-stage blower is commonly called a centrifugal fan.

Figure 6. Single-Stage Blower

Major Components - The major components that are associated

with a single-stage blower include:
• Inlet
• Impeller
• Volute
• Housing
• Outlet

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Operation - The gas enters the blower axially to the impeller

shaft through the inlet to the impeller. The impeller moves the
gas stream in a rotary motion, which results in an outward
velocity due to centrifugal forces. The movement of the gas
stream outward creates a low-pressure area at the center of the
impeller (inlet). The low pressure at the center of the impeller
causes the gas stream to flow into the inlet of the blower. The
rotary motion of the gas stream is transformed to pressure by
means of a volute. The volute is a gradually widening section of
the housing that surrounds the impeller and that gradually
reduces the tangential or radial velocity of the gas stream as the
stream leaves the impeller. The volute converts the velocity to
pressure and directs the flow to the compressor outlet, where
the gas exits in a stream perpendicular to the axis of the blower
impeller.

Applications. Single-stage blowers are preferred for high

volume, low pressure applications.

Axial
Axial compressors accelerate the gas in a direction that is
parallel to a rotating shaft and to pairs of moving and stationary
blades. The combination of a row of moving blades (rotating
vanes) and a row of stationary blades (stator vanes) forms a
stage. The pressure rise per stage in an axial compressor is
small compared to the pressure rise per stage of a centrifugal
compressor; therefore, the axial compressor contains more
stages than does a centrifugal compressor that operates in the
same pressure range. Roughly three axial stages are required
for one centrifugal stage.

Multi-Stage

An axial compressor that consists of more than one stage is

classified as a multi-stage axial compressor. As the volume or
pressure requirements of the process increases, the number of
axial compressor stages increases. A typical, multi-stage, axial
compressor is shown in Figure 7.

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Major Components - The following major components, which are

discussed in detail in Module 212.03, are noted for the purposes
of identification:
• Shaft Seals
• Thrust Bearing
• Radical Bearings
• Inlet Nozzle
• Inlet Volute
• Rotor Shaft
• Stator Vanes
• Adjustable Stator Vanes
• Fixed Stator Vanes
• Rotating Vanes
• Tapered Cylindrical Casing
• Discharge Volute
• Discharge Casing

Operation. A multi-stage axial compressor consists of a rotor

shaft with a series of rotating blades and a tapered cylindrical
casing with adjustable and fixed stator vanes. The gas enters
through an inlet nozzle that guides the gas to the inlet volute.
The inlet volute guides and accelerates the gas stream into the
stator vanes. The stator vanes turn the gas stream to properly
orient the gas stream for the next row of rotating vanes. The
rotating vanes increase the energy of the gas by increasing the
velocity of the gas. The stator vanes act as diffusers to provide
resistance to the gas flow, and they cause the gas stream to
decrease in velocity and to increase in pressure. Because
rotating vanes and stator vanes alternate down the length of the
casing, the gas is both accelerated and decelerated several
times before it leaves the compressor. As the gas leaves the
last set of stator vanes, it exits the compressor through the
discharge volute and discharge nozzle.

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Applications - The application range chart that was previously

shown in Figure 1 shows discharge pressure (psig) versus inlet
flow (ACFM) for axial compressors. Multi-stage axial
compressors are used for high flow applications with relatively
low pressure ratios (80,000 - 800,000 inlet ACFM at 2 - 100 psig
discharge pressure). Multi-stage axial compressors are mostly
used to provide combustion air to gas turbines and are also
used to supply air to the regenerator in fluid catalytic cracking
units.

Figure 7. Multi-Stage Axial Compressor

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Single-Stage
(Fans)

Single-stage axial compressors or axial flow fans, as shown in

Figure 8, typically draw on an atmospheric pressure, and they
have discharge pressures up to only a few psig. A single-stage
axial compressor moves the gas stream parallel to the
compressor’s drive shaft. Single-stage axial compressors
consist of one row of blades that is attached to a shaft. When
process requirements vary significantly, the blades may have a
variable pitch control system to vary the discharge pressure and
volume.

Major Components - The major components associated with a

single-stage axial compressor include:
• Compressor Housing
• Inlet Nozzle
• Inlet Volute
• Impeller
• Straightening or Guide Vanes
• Drive Shaft
• Discharge Nozzle

Operation - Single-stage axial compressors use a series of

impeller blades that are attached to a rotating drive shaft to
move a gas stream. As the gas enters the fan/compressor, an
inlet nozzle guides the gas to an inlet volute. The inlet volute
guides and accelerates the gas stream into the blades that are
mounted on the impeller. Each blade increases the energy of
the gas by increasing the gas velocity. Some single-stage axial
compressor/fans are equipped with controllable pitch (blade
angle) impellers for use in variable-air-volume systems. After
the gas flows through the impeller, it flows past straightening
vanes (also called guide vanes). The straightening vanes are
designed to remove swirl from the gas (imparted by the
impeller), to straighten the air flow, and to act as diffusers to
provide a resistance to gas flow. Resisting the gas flow causes
the gas pressure to increase while decreasing gas velocity.
After the straightening vanes, the gas exits the compressor
through the discharge nozzle.

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Figure 8. Single-Stage Axial Compressor

Applications. Single-stage axial compressors are used in

applications in which large volumes of compressed air or gas
are required. Single-stage axial compressors are generally
used for fan installations, such as integral motor cooling fans,
forced draft cooling systems, and induced draft cooling systems.

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CLASSIFYING POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS BY TYPE

Positive-displacement compression is defined as the
compression of a gas due to the mechanical reduction of the
volume in a confined space. The basic principle of positive-
displacement compression is that two objects cannot occupy the
same space at the same time. In positive-displacement
compressors, gas is confined within a closed space or chamber,
and the volume of the chamber is reduced. As the volume of
the chamber decreases, the energy of the gas that occupies the
chamber is increased, which causes the gas pressure and the
temperature to increase. Once the pressure is increased above
the process discharge pressure, the gas is discharged out of the
compressor.

The following types of positive-displacement compressors will

be discussed in this section:
• Reciprocating
• Rotary

The basic difference between a reciprocating compressor and a

rotary compressor is the manner in which the gas is
compressed. A reciprocating compressor compresses the gas
through the use of pistons that move back and forth in cylinders
to reduce the volume of the gas. A rotary compressor
compresses the gas through use of rotary motion of the
compressor’s rotor. The volume of the chamber that contains
the gas is reduced as the rotor rotates.

Although reciprocating and rotary compressors fall under the

same classification, which is positive-displacement, there are
differences in their construction and design, with the result that
each has its distinct advantages and disadvantages. Table 2
shows the advantages and the disadvantages of reciprocating
and rotary positive-displacement compressors.

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Compressor Type Advantages Disadvantages

Reciprocating Higher efficiency Pulsation

Higher pressure ratio Higher maintenance
requirements
Rotary No pulsation Lower efficiency
Lower maintenance Higher noise level (for certain
requirements types)
Lower pressure ratio

Table 2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Reciprocating and Rotary Positive-

Displacement Compressors

Reciprocating
A reciprocating compressor is a positive-displacement,
constant-volume, variable-pressure compressor. A
reciprocating compressor is the most common type of positive-
displacement compressor.

Reciprocating compressors are available in single and multi-

staged designs. Single-stage reciprocating compressors are
typically rated at discharge pressures of 25 to 100 psig, with
some units rated as low as 2 psig. Multi-stage reciprocating
compressors are typically rated at discharge pressures of 80 to
30,000 psig, with specially designed units rated in excess of
50,000 psig. As already mentioned, a reciprocating compressor
is a positive displacement device. Unlike centrifugal
compressors, the reciprocating compressor cannot self-regulate
its capacity against a given discharge pressure. The inlet and
outlet air flow of a reciprocating compressor is a function of
compressor speed and cylinder volume.

Some advantages of a reciprocating compressor over a

centrifugal compressor are:
• Greater flexibility in capacity and pressure range.
• Higher compressor efficiency and lower power cost.
• Capability for delivering higher pressures.
• Capability for handling lower flowrates.
• Less sensitivity to gas composition, molecular weight, and

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density.

Because the design of a reciprocating compressor is such that

the produced gas pressure is not affected by the molecular
weight of the gas (as in the case with dynamic compressors),
reciprocating compressors are used for most low molecular
weight applications. Some Saudi Aramco applications that use
reciprocating compressors are as follows:
• Refinery Off-Gas Compressors
• Hydrocracker Make-Up Compressor (H2-Rich Gas)
• Low-Flow Plant and Instrument Air Compressors
• Nitrogen Compressors
• Refinery Low-Flow Recycle Compressors (H2-Rich Gas)

Single-Acting

Figure 9 is an illustration of a single-acting reciprocating

compressor. Single-acting refers to the action that takes place
during a stroke of the piston.

A single-acting reciprocating compressor compresses gas on

only one side of the piston. The reciprocating motion of a
single-acting compressor is defined by a suction stroke and a
discharge stroke (also called a compression stroke).

Major Components - The major components of a single-acting

reciprocating compressor are as follows:
• Crankshaft
• Cross-Heads
• Cylinders
• Piston
• Suction Valves
• Discharge Valves
• Piston Rod Packing

A crankshaft (not shown) is rotated by a prime mover. The

crankshaft converts the rotary motion of the prime mover into
reciprocating motion of the pistons or crosshead through the
use of a connecting rod.

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Operation - The compression cycle of a single-acting

reciprocating compressor consists of two strokes of the piston:
the suction stroke and the compression stroke. The suction
stroke begins when the piston moves away from the inlet port of
the cylinder. The gas that is in the space between the piston
and the inlet port expands rapidly until the pressure decreases
below the pressure on the opposite side of the suction valve.
The pressure difference across the suction valve causes it to
open and admit gas into the cylinder. The gas flows into the
cylinder until the piston reaches the end of its stroke. The
compression stroke starts when the piston starts its return
movement. When the pressure in the cylinder increases above
the pressure on the opposite side of the suction valve, the
suction valve closes to trap the gas inside the cylinder. As the
piston continues to move toward the end of the cylinder, the
volume of the cylinder decreases and the pressure of the gas
increases. When the pressure inside the cylinder reaches the
design pressure to overcome the pressure that is exerted by the
discharge valve and the downstream piping, the discharge valve
opens and discharges the contents of the cylinder.

Figure 9. Single-Acting Reciprocating Compressor

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Double-Acting

Double-acting also refers to the action that takes place during a

stroke of the piston. A double-acting reciprocating compressor
draws a suction on one side of the piston as it discharges on the
other side of the piston. The double action of a double-acting
reciprocating compressor reduces discharge pressure pulsation
and increases the output volume for a given cylinder design.
Double-acting pistons are standard for most process gas
compressor cylinders.

Major Components - The major components of a double-acting

reciprocating compressor are basically the same as those of the
single-acting reciprocating compressor; the exception is that
there are more suction valves and discharge valves in the
double-acting reciprocating compressor.

Operation - The cycle of a double-acting reciprocating

compressor also consists of two strokes of the piston, and the
suction and discharge valves operate in a similar fashion to
those valves in the single-acting reciprocating compressor;
however, in the case of a double-acting reciprocating
compressor, during movement of the piston, both the suction
and the discharge process takes place. A double-acting
reciprocating compressor is shown in Figure 10. As the piston
moves towards the end of the cylinder head to discharge the
compressed gas, the suction valve on the crankshaft end of the
cylinder opens to allow gas to fill the crankshaft end of the
cylinder. During the return stroke, the discharge valve at the
crankshaft end opens and discharges the compressed gas as
the suction valve on the cylinder head opens to allow gas to fill
the cylinder-head end of the piston.

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Figure 10. Double-Acting, Reciprocating Compressor

Dry/Lubricated

The design of the dry and lubricated reciprocating compressors

are relatively similar. The lubricated type is provided with oil
injection ports, and, typically, it has a force-feed lubrication
system that is separate from the lubrication that is provided to
the crankshaft. The dry compressor only lubricates the
crankshaft and crosshead. The lubricated type normally uses
two or three single-piece, diagonal-cut, Teflon rider rings on the
compression piston or possibly a three-piece bronze segmental
ring. Dry reciprocating compressors use Teflon, special
plastics, or high-performance polymer rings as the sealing
medium between piston and cylinder. Because the sliding
surfaces are lubricated on lubricated compressors, harder
piston and rider ring materials, such as glass and/or
molybdenum-filled Teflon, can be used.

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Due to the requirements of some gases, dry cylinder

compressors are employed to avoid contamination of the gas
stream. Without the lubricant, which also serves as a sealing
mechanism, the cylinders are designed with extremely close
tolerances. The lack of lubrication also necessitates the use of
special pistons and rings.

Special considerations exist for the use of dry compressors.

The close tolerances and lack of lubrication in a dry compressor
make the cleanliness of the incoming gas stream an absolute
necessity. Suction filtration down to 1:m is necessary to ensure
a longer operational life of the piston, packing rings, and rider
rings. To minimize cylinder and ring wear, dry compressor
piston speeds are usually limited to 600 ft/min.

The operation of dry and lubricated reciprocating compressors

is the same as the operation of the reciprocating compressor
operations that were described in the single- and double-acting
reciprocating compressor sections. Dry reciprocating
compressors are used in compressed air and process
applications where oil can contaminate the process.

Rotary
The following types of rotary compressors are discussed in this
section:
• Screw
• Lobe
• Liquid Ring
• Sliding-Vane

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Screw

Screw compressors are positive-displacement, constant-

volume, variable-pressure compressors. The application range
chart that was shown previously in Figure 1 shows discharge
pressure (psig) versus inlet flow (ACFM) for screw compressors.
Screw compressors are available up to an inlet flow from 300 to
60,000 ACFM with discharge pressures up to 580 psig. Screw
compressors are available in lubricated or dry and in single-,
two-, or three-stage designs.

Major Components - Figure 11 shows the basic construction of a

lubricated screw compressor. The single-stage design consists
of a pair of rotors that mesh in a one-piece, dual-bore cylinder.
The male rotor usually consists of four helical threads that are
spaced 90 degrees apart. The female rotor usually consists of
six helical grooves that are spaced 60 degrees apart. The rotor
speed ratio is inversely proportional to the thread-groove ratio.
When the male rotor rotates at 1800 rpm in the four-thread, six-
groove, screw compressor, the female rotor rotates at 1200
rpm. Bearings support the rotor and assist in the maintenance
of the close tolerances between the threads and the grooves.

Operation - There are two main types of screw compressors:

lubricated type and dry type. Lubricated screw compressors
use oil injected into the compression chamber to lubricate the
chamber and to absorb the heat of compression. Dry-type
screw compressors do not use oil injection. The physical
operation of each type is similar.

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Lubricated Screw Compressor - The screw compressor can be

motor-driven or engine-driven by direct, belt, or gear drive.
Typically, the male rotor is connected to the driver; however,
female rotor drive is possible in some designs. The female rotor
is driven by the male rotor without metal-to-metal contact
through the oil film developed between the rotors. In some
lubricated designs, timing gears are used to keep the two
counterrotating screws in the proper mesh. In a single-stage
design, the air inlet is usually located at the top of the cylinder
near the drive shaft end. The discharge port is located at the
opposite end of the cylinder. Compression begins as the rotors
unmesh at the air inlet port. Gas is drawn into the cavity
between the male rotor lobes (thread) and the female rotor
grooves. As rotation continues, the rotor threads pass the
edges of the inlet ports and trap the gas in a cell formed by the
rotor cavities and the cylinder wall. Further rotation causes the
male rotor thread to roll into the female rotor groove, which
reduces the volume and raises the cell pressure. Oil is injected
after the cell is closed to the inlet to seal the clearance between
the male thread and female groove and to absorb the heat of
compression. Compression continues until the rotor threads
pass the edge of the discharge port and release the
compressed gas and oil mixture.

Dry Screw Compressor - Similar to the lubricated screw

compressor, the dry screw compressor can be motor-driven or
engine-driven by direct, belt, or gear drive. Typically, the male
rotor is connected to the driver; however, female rotor drive is
possible in some designs. The female rotor is driven by the
male rotor without metal-to-metal contact through timing gears,
as shown in Figure 12. Because oil is not used to provide a
seal, close tolerances are required between the mating area of
the male and female rotors and between the rotors and the
casing. The close tolerances required in the dry screw
compressor make these compressors particularly sensitive to
the effects of dirt; therefore, they must be well protected through
the use of intake filters. The operation of the dry screw
compressor is similar to the operation of the lubricated screw
compressor with the exception of the oil injection.

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Figure 11. Lubricated Screw Compressor

Figure 12. Dry Screw Compressor

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Applications - Dry screw compressors are generally used in

refrigeration and plant and instrument air systems in which oil-
free air is required and in some hydrocarbon applications when
oil would affect the process condition (catalyst poisoning). Wet
screw compressors are generally used in hydrocarbon
applications in which small amounts of oil are acceptable.

The following is a list of some of the advantages of the

lubricated screw compressor over the dry screw compressor:
• The injected lubricant provides internal cooling, which
reduces or eliminates polymerizing.
• Lubricated screw compressors can achieve considerably
higher compression ratios.
• Lubricated screw compressors operate at lower discharge
temperatures, e.g., 90°C versus 250°C.

Lobe

The rotary lobe compressor, which is shown if Figure 13, is a

positive-displacement, constant-volume, variable-pressure, two-
lobe rotary compressor. Rotary lobe compressors are also
available in three-lobe designs. As was previously shown in the
application range chart, Figure 1, lobe compressors are
available up to an inlet flow of 5,000 ACFM at pressure ranges
from 5 to 25 psig. Most rotary lobe compressors provide oil-free
compression.

A lobe compressor consists of identically synchronized rotors.

The rotors are synchronized through use of an external, oil-
lubricated timing gear that positively prevents rotor contact and
that minimizes meshing rotor clearance in order to optimize
efficiency. The rotors of the two-lobe compressor each have
two lobes. When the rotor rotates, gas is trapped between the
rotor lobes and the compressor casing. The rotating rotor
forces the gas from the gas inlet port, along the casing, to the
gas discharge port. Discharge begins as the edge of the
leading lobe passes the edge of the discharge port. The trailing
lobe pushes the entrapped gas into the discharge port, which
compresses the gas against the backpressure of the system.
Lobe compressors are usually supplied with noise enclosures or
silencers to reduce their characteristic high noise level.

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Figure 13. Two-Lobe Compressor

Liquid-Ring

The liquid-ring compressor, which is shown in Figure 14, is a

positive-displacement, constant-volume, variable pressure, two-
stage compressor. As was previously shown in the application
range chart, Figure 1, liquid-ring compressors are available up
to an inlet flow of 2,000 ACFM at pressure ranges from a low
vacuum (4 in Hg. Absolute) to 100 psig. Liquid-ring
compressors are most commonly used as vacuum pumps.
Liquid-ring compressors are used in saturated gas applications,
especially in vacuum towers, to produce the necessary vacuum.

Liquid-ring compressors consist of a round, multi-blade rotor

that revolves in an elliptical casing. The elliptical casing is
partially filled with a liquid, which is usually water, but it can be
any process-compatible fluid. As the rotor turns, the blades
form a series of chambers that contain gas with the liquid acting
as a piston. The space between the blades serves as a rotor
chamber. The gas inlet and discharge ports are located at the
inner diameter of the rotor chamber. As the liquid leaves the
rotor chamber, gas is drawn from the gas inlet into the rotor
chamber through the gas inlet ports. As the rotor continues to
rotate, the liquid returns to the rotor chamber and decreases the
volume in the chamber. As the volume decreases, the gas
pressure increases. As the rotor chamber passes the gas
discharge port, the compressed gas is discharged through the
gas outlet into a gas/liquid separator and then to the process.

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GAS INLET

CASING
ROTOR
CHAMBER MULTI-BLADE
ROTOR

GAS INLET
PORTS

GAS
CASING DISCHARGE
PORTS
KEY:
ROTOR, ONE MOVING PART
LIQUID COMPRESSANT
CAST-IRON BODY

Figure 14. Liquid-Ring Compressor

Sliding-Vane

A sliding-vane compressor, which is shown in Figure 15, is a

positive-displacement, constant-volume, variable-pressure
compressor. Sliding-vane compressors are available in single-
and multi-stage arrangements. Typical single-stage capacities
range through 3200 cubic feet per minute and 50 psig; two-
stage sliding-vane compressors can deliver pressures from 60
to 150 psig and flows up to approximately 1800 cubic feet per
minute. The application range chart (Figure 1) graphically
compares the sliding-vane compressor capacity to the
capacities of other styles of compressors.

Sliding-vane compressors are typically found in applications

such as air blast hole drilling, pneumatic conveying, chemical
and petroleum vapor recovery, gas transmission, and small
plant air systems.

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A sliding vane compressor uses a series of vanes that slide

freely in longitudinal slots that are cut into the rotor. During
operation, centrifugal force causes the vanes to move outward
against the casing wall. The chamber that is formed between
the rotor, between any two vanes, and the casing is referred to
as a cell. As the rotor turns, an individual vane passes the inlet
port to form a cell between itself and the vane that precedes it.
As an individual vane rotates toward the end of the inlet port,
the volume of the cell increases. The increase in the cell
volume draws a partial vacuum in the cell. The vacuum draws
the gas in through the inlet port. When a vane passes the inlet
port, the cell is closed, and the gas is trapped between the two
vanes, the rotor, and the casing. As rotation continues toward
the discharge port, the volume of the cell decreases. The vanes
ride against the casing and slide back into the rotor. The
decrease in volume increases the gas pressure. The high-
pressure gas is discharged out of the compressor through the
gas discharge port. Sliding-vane compressors are
characterized by a high noise level that results from the vane
motion.

Figure 15. Sliding-Vane Compressor

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WORK AIDS

WORK AID 1: ILLUSTRATIONS USED TO CLASSIFY DYNAMIC

COMPRESSORS BY TYPE
Use Work Aid 1 to perform Exercise 1.

Figure 24. Integrally Geared, Centrifugal Compressor

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Figure 25. Multi-Stage, Axially Split, Centrifugal Compressor

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Figure 26. Single-Stage Blower

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Figure 27. Multi-Stage, Barrel, Centrifugal Compressor

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Figure 28. Single-Stage, Axial Compressor

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Figure 29. Multi-Stage, Axial Compressor

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WORK AID 2: DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS BY TYPE

ILLUSTRATIONS USED TO CLASSIFY POSITIVE-
Use Work Aid 2 to perform Exercise 2.

GAS INLET

CASING
ROTOR
CHAMBER MULTI-BLADE
ROTOR

GAS INLET
PORTS

GAS
CASING DISCHARGE
PORTS
KEY:
ROTOR, ONE MOVING PART
LIQUID COMPRESSANT
CAST-IRON BODY

Figure 30. Liquid-Ring, Rotary Compressor

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Figure 31. Dry Screw Compressor

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Figure 32. Lubricated Screw Compressor

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Figure 33. Sliding-Vane, Rotary Compressor

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Figure 34. Two-Lobe, Rotary Compressor

Figure 35. Double-Acting, Reciprocating Compressor

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GLOSSARY

balance piston A device that is installed on the shaft of a centrifugal

compressor and that reduces the forces on the thrust
bearing.
casing The outer containment vessel of a compressor.
clearance volume A volume in a reciprocating compressor cylinder that is not
swept by the piston.
crankshaft The rotating element that transmits power from the driver to
the connecting rods and that converts the rotary motion of
the prime mover into the reciprocating motion of the
pistons.
cross-head The mechanical element between the connecting rod and
the piston rod that absorbs the nonaxial forces from the
connecting rod and that transmits only axial forces to the
piston rod.
cylinder The principal component of a reciprocating compressor,
which contains the piston, the suction and discharge valves,
and the packing around the piston rod.
diffuser A component of centrifugal compressors that is located
after an impeller. The diffuser converts velocity head to
pressure head.
discharge volute Spiral-shaped casing that is designed to convert velocity
energy to pressure energy.
dynamic compression The compression of a gas with continuous flow due to the
interaction between a vane and a gas.
impeller The rotating element of a centrifugal compressor that
develops velocity head. Also called a wheel.
intercooler A gas cooler that is located between compressor stages.
piston The component that moves back and forth in the cylinder
and that compresses the gas.
positive-displacement Compression that occurs when a quantity of gas occupies a
compression space and is mechanically reduced. Such compression
results in a corresponding increase in pressure.

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