CHAPTER 3
ANGLE MODULATION
ANGLE MODULATION
● classified into two types such as
◦ Frequency modulation (FM)
◦ Phase modulation (PM)
◦ Altering the frequency (FM) / phase (PM) of a
carrier signal to encode the massage signal.
● Used for :
◦ Commercial radio broadcasting
◦ Television sound transmission
◦ Two way mobile radio
◦ Cellular radio
◦ Microwave and satellite communication system
2
Advantages FM/PM over AM:
➢Freedom from interference: all natural and
external noise consist of amplitude
variations, thus receiver usually cannot
distinguish between amplitude of noise or
desired signal. AM is noisy than FM.
➢Operate in very high frequency band
(VHF): 88MHz-108MHz
➢Can transmit musical programs with higher
degree of fidelity.
3
Principles of FM
● A sine wave carrier can be modified for
the purpose of transmitting information
from one place to another by varying
its frequency. This is known as
frequency modulation (FM).
● In FM, the carrier amplitude remains
constant and the carrier frequency
is changed by the modulating
signal.
4
Principles of FM
● As the amplitude of the information
signal varies, the carrier frequency
shifts proportionately.
● As the modulating signal amplitude
increases, the carrier frequency
increases.
● With no modulation the carrier is at its
normal center or resting frequency
5
Principles
Principles of FM
of FM
● Frequency deviation (∆f / fd) is the
amount of change in carrier frequency
produced by the modulating signal.
● The frequency deviation rate is how
many times per second the carrier
frequency deviates above or below its
center frequency.
● The frequency of the modulating
signal determines the frequency
deviation rate.
Principles
Principles of FM
of FM
Carrier
Modulating
Signal
FM
signal
7
Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
● When the modulating signal has
only two amplitudes.
● For example, when modulating
signal is a binary 0- the carrier
frequency is the centre frequency
level when modulating signal is a
binary 1- the carrier frequency
change to a higher frequency level.
8
Principles of PM
● When the amount of phase shift of a
constant-frequency carrier is varied in
accordance with a modulating signal, the
resulting output is a phase-modulation
(PM) signal.
● Phase modulators produce a phase shift
which is a time separation between two
sine waves of the same frequency.
● The greater the amplitude of the
modulating signal, the greater the phase
shift.
Principles
Principles of Phase of PM
Modulation
● The maximum frequency deviation produced by a
phase modulator occurs during the time that the
modulating signal is changing at its most rapid rate.
A frequency shift occurs in PM only when the modulating signal amplitude varies.
Principles
Principles of Phase of PM
Modulation
Phase-Shift Keying
◦ The process of phase modulating a carrier
with binary data is called phase-shift
keying (PSK) or binary phase-shift
keying (BPSK).
◦ The PSK signal has a constant frequency,
but the phase of the signal from some
reference changes as the binary
modulating signal occurs.
Phase-shift
Principles keying
of Phase (PSK)
Modulation
Figure: Phase modulation of a carrier by binary data produces PSK.
Mathematical analysis of FM
● Mathematical analysis:
● Let message signal:
ν m (t ) = Vm cosϖ mt
● And carrier signal:
ν c (t ) = Vc cos[ϖ c t + θ ]
13
Mathematical analysis of FM
● During the process of frequency modulations the
frequency of carrier signal is changed in accordance
with the instantaneous amplitude of message signal.
Therefore the frequency of carrier after modulation is
written as
ωi = ωc + K1v m (t ) = ωC + K1Vm cos ωm t
● To find the instantaneous phase angle of
modulated signal, integrate equation above
w.r.t. t
K1Vm
( )
φi = ∫ ωi dt = ∫ ωC + K1Vm cos ωm t dt = ωC t +
ωm
sin ωm t
14
Mathematical analysis of FM
● Thus, we get the FM wave as:
K1Vm
v FM ( t ) = Vc cos φ1 = VC cos(ωC t + sin ωm t )
ωm
vFM (t ) = VC cos(ωC t + m f sin ωmt )
● Where modulation index for FM is
given by
K1Vm
mf =
ωm
15
Mathematical analysis of FM
Δf = K1Vm ;
Δf
mf =
fm
● K1 – deviation sensitivities Hz/V
16
Example 1 (FM)
● Determine the peak frequency
deviation (∆f) and modulation index
(m) for an FM modulator with a
deviation sensitivity K1 = 5 kHz/V
and a modulating signal,
v m ( t ) = 2 cos(2π2000 t )
Δf =● K1Vm ; Δf = 5k x 2 = 10 k Hz
Δf 10k
mf =
● mf = =5
fm 2k 17
Mathematical analysis of PM
● The process by which changing the phase of carrier
signal in accordance with the instantaneous of
message signal. The amplitude remains constant
after the modulation process.
● Mathematical analysis:
Let message signal:
ν m (t ) = Vm cosϖ mt
And carrier signal:
ν c (t ) = Vc cos[ϖ c t + θ ]
18
Mathematical analysis of PM
● Where θ = phase angle of carrier signal. It is changed in
accordance with the amplitude of the message signal;
● i.e.
θ = KVm (t ) = KVm cos ωmt
● After phase modulation the instantaneous voltage will be
● or v pm (t ) = VC cos(ωC t + KVm cos ωmt )
v pm (t ) = VC cos(ωC t + m p cos ωmt )
● Where mp = Modulation index of phase modulation
● K is a constant and called deviation sensitivities of the phase
19
Summary of Mathematical Equation
for FM and PM
Tomasi Copyright ©2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Electronic Communications Systems, 5e Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
20
EKT343 –Principle of Communication
Engineering
● Determine the peak phase deviation
(m) for a PM modulator with a
deviation sensitivity K = 2.5 rad/V and
a modulating signal,
vm (t ) = 2 cos(2π 2000t )
mp = KVm
mp = 2.5 x 2 = 5rad
21
Modulation Index and Sidebands
● Any modulation process produces
sidebands.
● When a constant-frequency sine wave
modulates a carrier, two side frequencies
are produced.
● Side frequencies are the sum and
difference of the carrier and modulating
frequency.
● The bandwidth of an FM signal is usually
much wider than that of an AM signal with
the same modulating signal.
Modulation Index and Sidebands
Modulation Index
◦ The ratio of the frequency deviation to the
modulating frequency is known as the
modulation index (mf).
◦ In most communication systems using FM,
maximum limits are put on both the frequency
deviation and the modulating frequency.
◦ In standard FM broadcasting, the maximum
permitted frequency deviation is 75 kHz and the
maximum permitted modulating frequency is 15
kHz.
◦ The modulation index for standard FM
broadcasting is therefore 5.
Modulation
Modulation Index andIndex
Sidebands
and Sidebands
Bessel Functions
◦ The equation that expresses the phase
angle in terms of the sine wave modulating
signal is solved with a complex
mathematical process known as Bessel
functions.
◦ Bessel coefficients are widely available
and it is not necessary to memorize or
calculate them.
FM&PM (Bessel function)
● Thus, for general equation:
vFM (t ) = VC cos(ωC t + m f cos ωmt )
∞
⎛ nπ ⎞
cos(α + m cos β) = ∑ J n (m) cos⎜ α + nβ + ⎟
n = −∞ ⎝ 2 ⎠
∞
⎛ nπ ⎞
m( t ) = VC ∑ J n (m) cos⎜ ωc t + nωm t + ⎟
n = −∞ ⎝ 2 ⎠
25
FM&PM (Bessel
B.F. (cont’d)function)
● Each pair of side band is preceded by J coefficients.
The order of the coefficient is denoted by subscript m.
The Bessel function can be written as
n
⎛ mf ⎞ ⎡ 1 (m f / 2 )2 (m f / 2 )4 ⎤
J n (m f )= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎢ − + − ....⎥
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎢⎣ n 1!(n + 1)! 2!(n + 2 )! ⎥⎦
● n = number of the side frequency
● mf = modulation index
26
FM&PM (Bessel function)
Bessel Functions
◦ The symbol ! means factorial. This tells you to
multiply all integers from 1 through the number
to which the symbol is attached. (e.g. 5! Means
1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 = 120)
◦ Narrowband FM (NBFM) is any FM system in
which the modulation index is less than π/2 =
1.57, or
mf < π /2.
◦ NBFM is widely used in communication. It
conserves spectrum space at the expense of
the signal-to-noise ratio.
B.F. (cont’d)
FM&PM (Bessel function)
28
Bessel Functions of the First Kind, Jn(m)
for some value of modulation index
29
Representation of frequency spectrum
30
Example 3
● For an FM modulator with a
modulation index m = 1, a modulating
signal vm(t) = Vm sin(2π1000t), and an
unmodulated carrier vc(t) = 10
sin(2π500kt). Determine the number of
sets of significant side frequencies and
their amplitudes. Then, draw the
frequency spectrum showing their
relative amplitudes.
31
Solution for Example 3
● From the bessel table, m = 1,
◦ J0 = 0.77, J1= 0.44, J2= 0.11, J3 = 0.02
◦ So, n = 3
◦ Amplitudes:
◦ V0 = J0Vc = 0.77 x 10 = 7.7 V
◦ V1 = J1Vc = 0.44 x 10 = 4.4 V
◦ V2 = J2Vc = 0.11 x 10 = 1.1 V
◦ V3 = J3Vc = 0.02 x 10 = 0.2 V
32
● Draw the frequency spectrum
showing their relative amplitudes.
33
Comparison NBFM&WBFM
WBFM NBFM
Modulation index greater than 10 less than π/2 / 1.57
Freq deviation 75 kHz 5 kHz
Modulation 30 Hz- 15 kHZ 3 kHz
frequency
Spectrum Infinite no of sidebands Two sidebands and
and carrier carrier
Bandwidth 15 x NBFM 2 fm
2(δ*fm (max))
Noise More suppressed Less suppressed
Application Entertainment & Mobile communication
Broadcasting
34
FM Bandwidth
● Theoretically, the generation and transmission of FM
requires infinite bandwidth. Practically, FM system have
finite bandwidth and they perform well.
● The value of modulation index determine the number of
sidebands that have the significant relative amplitudes.
● If n is the number of sideband pairs, and line of
frequency spectrum are spaced by fm, thus, the
bandwidth is:
● For n≥1
B fm = 2nf m
35
FM Bandwidth
FM Bandwidth
Another way to determine the BW of an FM signal
is to use Carson’s rule:
B fm = 2(Δf + f m )........(1)
Carson’s rule will always give a BW lower than that
calculated with the previous formula.
36
Example 4
● For an FM modulator with a peak frequency
deviation, Δf = 10 kHz, a modulating-signal
frequency fm = 10 kHz,
Vc = 10 V and a 500 kHz carrier, determine
◦ Actual minimum bandwidth from the Bessel function
table.
◦ Approximate minimum bandwidth using Carson’s
rule.
◦ Plot the output frequency spectrum for the Bessel
approximation.
37
Solution for Example 4
Δf 10k
mf = mf = =1
f●m 10k ; n=3
●
BW = 2 n fm
= 2 x 3 x 10 k = 60 kHz
BW (carson rule) = 2(Δf + f m )
= 2 (10k + 10 k)
= 40 kHz
38
39
Angle Modulation
Part 2
■Power distribution of FM
■Generation & Demodulation of FM
■Noise in FM
■Application of FM
40
FM Power Distribution
● As seen in Bessel function table, it shows that
as the sideband relative amplitude increases,
the carrier amplitude,J0 decreases.
● This is because, in FM, the total transmitted
power is always constant and the total average
power is equal to the unmodulated carrier
power, that is the amplitude of the FM remains
constant whether or not it is modulated.
41
FM Power Distribution
● In effect, in FM, the total power that is originally in
the carrier is redistributed between all components
of the spectrum, in an amount determined by the
modulation index, mf, and the corresponding Bessel
functions.
● At certain value of modulation index, the carrier
component goes to zero, where in this condition,
the power is carried by the sidebands only.
42
Average Power
Vc2
● The average power in unmodulated carrier Pc =
2R
● The total instantaneous power in the angle modulated carrier.
m( t ) 2 Vc2
Pt = = cos 2 [ωc t + θ( t )]
R R
Vc2 ⎧ 1 1 ⎫ Vc
2
Pt = ⎨ + cos[2ωc t + 2θ( t )]⎬ =
R ⎩2 2 ⎭ 2R
● The total modulated power
Vo2 2(V1 ) 2 2(V2 ) 2 2(Vn ) 2
Pt = P0 + 2 P1 + 2 P2 + .. + 2 Pn = + + + .. +
2R 2R 2R 2R
43
Example
● Foran FM modulator with a modulation
index m = 1, a modulating signal
vm(t) = Vmsin(2π1000t)
and an unmodulated carrier
vc(t) = 10sin(2π500kt)
Determine the unmodulated carrier
power for the FM modulator given with
a load resistance, RL = 50Ω. Determine
also the total power in the angle-
modulated wave.
44
Solution for Example 6
10 2
Pc = = 1W
2(50)
7.7 2 2(4.4) 2 2(1.1) 2 2(0.2) 2
Pt = + + + = 1.0051
2(50) 2(50) 2(50) 2(50)
45
Exercise
● For an FM modulator with modulation index,
m = 2, modulating signal,
vm(t) = Vmcos(2π2000t)
and an unmodulated carrier,
vc(t) = 10 cos(2π800kt)
Assume, RL=50Ω
a) Determine the number of sets of significant sidebands.
b) Determine their amplitudes.
c) Draw the frequency spectrum showing the relative amplitudes
of the side frequencies.
d) Determine the bandwidth.
e) Determine the total power of the modulated wave.
46
Solution
● Vm = 1 V, Vc = 10 V, fm = 2 kHz, fc = 800 kHz, RL =
50 Ω
a) m = 2; n = 4
b) V0 = 10 (0.22) = 2.2 V
V1 = 10 (0.58) = 5.8 V
V2 = 10 (0.35) = 3.5 V
V3 = 10 (0.13) = 1.3 V
V4 = 10 (0.03) = 0.3 V
d) BW = 2n fm
= 2 x 4 x 2k
=16 kHz
2
e) PT = P2.02 + 2P2 (15+ 2 2 2+( 32P
.8 )2P .5 ) 23 +2P
2 (1.43) 2 2 ( 0.3) 2
+ + + + = 1.0018W
= 2 ( 50 ) 2 ( 50 ) 2 ( 50 ) 2 ( 50 ) 2 ( 50 )
47
792k 794k 796k 798k 800k 802k 804k 806k 808k
48
Generation of FM
● Two major FM generation:
i) Direct method:
i) straight forward, requires a Voltage-Controlled
Oscillator (VCO) whose oscillation frequency has
linear dependence on applied voltage.
ii) Advantage: large frequency deviation
iii) Disadvantage: the carrier frequency tends to drift
and must be stabilized.
iv) Common methods:
i) FM Reactance modulators
ii) Varactor diode modulators
49
50
51
Indirect FM generation:
● NBFM followed by frequency multiplier
● Use nonlinear circuit to get multiplier
● Can use mixer to change the carrier
frequency
● Combination of mixer and multiplier
provides flexibilities
52
Generation of FM (cont’d)
ii) Indirect method:
i. Frequency-up conversion.
ii. Two ways:
a. Heterodyne method
b. Multiplication method
iii. One most popular indirect method is the Armstrong
modulator
53
\
54
55
84.00 MHz
Note : LOW PASS FILTER (LPF)
= SELECT LOWER BAND
56
A : f = 500 kHz X 162 = 81 MHz
Δf = 15.432 Hz X 162 = 2499.984 Hz
B : f = 84 MHz - 81 MHz = 3.00 MHz
Δf = 15.432 Hz X 162 = 2499.984 Hz
Note : LOW PASS FILTER (LPF) = SELECT LOWER BAND
C: f = 3.00 MHz X 30 = 90.0 MHz
Δf = 2499.984 X 30 Hz = 74.99952 kHz
57
84.00 MHz
Note : LOW PASS FILTER (LPF) = FILTER LOWER BAND
58
Armstrong Modulator
A complete Armstrong modulator is supposed to
provide a 75kHz frequency deviation. It uses a
balanced modulator and 90o phase shifter to phase-
modulate a crystal oscillator. Required deviation is
obtained by combination of multipliers and mixing,
raise the signal from
suitable for broadcasting.
400kHz ± 14.47 Hz to 90.2MHz ± 75kHz
59
Wideband Armstrong Modulator
60
f= 400kHz X 81 = 32.4 MHz
Δf =14.47 Hz X 81 = 1.172 kHz
f= 33.81 MHz - 32.4 MHz = 1.41 MHz
Δf = 1.172 kHz
Note : LOW PASS FILTER (LPF) = SELECT LOWER BAND
61
FM Detection/Demodulation
● FM demodulation
◦ is a process of getting back or regenerate the
original modulating signal from the modulated
FM signal.
◦ It can be achieved by converting the
frequency deviation of FM signal to the
variation of equivalent voltage.
◦ The demodulator will produce an output where
its instantaneous amplitude is proportional to
the instantaneous frequency of the input FM
signal.
62
FM detection
● To detect an FM signal, it is necessary to have
a circuit whose output voltage varies linearly
with the frequency of the input signal.
● The most commonly used demodulator is the
PLL demodulator. Can be use to detect either
NBFM or WBFM.
63
PLL Demodulator
V0(t)
fi FM input Low pass
Phase Amplifier
filter
detector
fvco
Vc(t)
VCO
64
PLL Demodulator
● The phase detector produces an average output
voltage that is linear function of the phase
difference between the two input signals. Then low
frequency component is pass through the LPF to
get a small dc average voltage to the amplifier.
● After amplification, part of the signal is fed back
through VCO where it results in frequency
modulation of the VCO frequency. When the loop is
in lock, the VCO frequency follows or tracks the
incoming frequency. 65
PLL Demodulator
● Let instantaneous freq of FM Input,
fi(t)=fc+k1vm(t),
and the VCO output frequency,
f VCO(t)=f0 + k2Vc(t);
f0 is the free running frequency.
● For the VCO frequency to track the
instantaneous incoming frequency,
fvco = fi;
66
PLL Demodulator
● f0 + k2Vc(t)= fc +k1vm(t), so,
Vc (t ) ∝ f c − f 0 + k1vm (t )
● If VCO can be tuned so that fc=f0, then
Vc (t ) ∝ k1vm (t )
● Where Vc(t) is also taken as the output voltage,
which therefore is the demodulated output
67
Noise in FM
● Noise is interference generated by
lightning, motors, automotive ignition
systems, and power line switching that
produces transient signals.
● Noise is typically narrow spikes of
voltage with high frequencies.
● Noise (voltage spikes) add to a signal
and interfere with it.
● Some noise completely obliterates
signal information.
68
Noise in FM
● In AM systems, noise easily distorts
the transmitted signal however, in FM
systems any added noise must create
a frequency deviation in order to be
perceptible.
69
Noise in FM(Cont’d)
● The maximum frequency deviation due to random noise
occurs when the noise is at right angles to the resultant
signal. In the worst case the signal frequency has been
deviated by:
δ = θfm
● This shows that the deviation due to noise increases as the
modulation frequency increases. Since noise power is the
square of the noise voltage, the signal to noise ratio can
significantly degrade.
● Noise occurs predominantly at the highest frequencies
within the baseband
70
Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
● FM signals have a constant modulated
carrier amplitude.
● FM receivers contain limiter circuits that
deliberately restrict the amplitude of the
received signal.
● Any amplitude variations occurring on
the FM signal are effectively clipped by
limiter circuits.
● This amplitude clipping does not affect
the information content of the FM
signal, since it is contained solely within
the frequency variations of the carrier. 71
Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
72
Figure 5-11: An FM signal with noise.
Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Preemphasis
◦ Noise can interfere with an FM signal and
particularly with the high-frequency
components of the modulating signal.
◦ Noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy
and contains a lot of harmonics and other
high-frequency components.
◦ To overcome high-frequency noise, a
technique known as preemphasis is used.
◦ A simple high-pass filter can serve as a
transmitter’s pre-emphasis circuit.
◦ Pre-emphasis provides more amplification
of only high-frequency components. 73
Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Preemphasis circuit.
74
Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
De emphasis
◦ A simple low-pass filter can operate as a
deemphasis circuit in a receiver.
◦ A deemphasis circuit returns the frequency
response to its normal flat level.
◦ The combined effect of preemphasis and
deemphasis is to increase the signal-to-
noise ratio for the high-frequency
components during transmission so that
they will be stronger and not masked by
noise.
75
Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Deemphasis circuit.
76
Application of FM
● FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies for
high-fidelity broadcasts of music and speech (FM
broadcasting). Normal (analog) TV sound is also
broadcast using FM. The type of FM used in
broadcast is generally called wide-FM, or W-FM
● A narrowband form is used for voice
communications in commercial and amateur radio
settings. In two-way radio, narrowband narrow-fm
(N-FM) is used to conserve bandwidth. In addition,
it is used to send signals into space.
77
Frequency Modulation Versus
Amplitude Modulation
Major applications of AM and FM
Advantages
● Wideband FM gives significant improvement in the SNR at
the output of the RX which proportional to the square of
modulation index.
● Angle modulation is resistant to propagation-induced
selective fading since amplitude variations are unimportant
and are removed at the receiver using a limiting circuit.
● Angle modulation is very effective in rejecting interference.
(minimizes the effect of noise).
● Angle modulation allows the use of more efficient
transmitter power in information.
● Angle modulation is capable of handing a greater dynamic
range of modulating signal without distortion than AM.
79
Disadvantages
● Angle modulation requires a
transmission bandwidth much larger
than the message signal bandwidth.
● Angle modulation requires more
complex and expensive circuits than
AM.
80
Summary of angle modulation
-what you need to be familiar with
81
Summary (cont’d)
82
Summary (cont’d)
● Bandwidth:
a) Actual minimum bandwidth from
Bessel table:
B = 2( n × f m )
b) Approximate minimum bandwidth
using Carson’s rule:
B = 2(Δf + f m )
83
Exercise 1
● Determine the deviation ratio and
worst-case bandwidth for an FM signal
with a maximum frequency deviation
25 kHz and maximum modulating
signal 12.5 kHz.
DR = 1225.5kk = 2
BW = 2n fm = 2 x 4 x 12.5k
= 100 kHz
84
Exercise 2
● Foran FM modulator with 40-kHz
frequency deviation and a modulating-
signal frequency 10 kHz, determine the
bandwidth using both Carson’s rule and
Bessel table.
40k
mf = =4
● 10k ; n=7
● Carson’s rule:
BW = 2 (40k + 10 k)
= 100 kHz
● Bessel table:
BW = 2 n fm 85
= 2 x 7 x 10 k = 140 kHz
Exercise 3
● Foran FM modulator with an
unmodulated carrier amplitude 20 V, a
modulation index, m = 1, and a load
resistance of 10-ohm, determine the
power in the modulated carrier and
each side frequency, and sketch the
power spectrum for the modulated
wave.
86
Solution for Exercise 3
( 20 x 0.77 ) 2
P0 = 2 (10 )
= 11.858W
( 20 x 0.44 ) 2
P1 = P −1 =
2 (10 )
= 3.872W
( 20 x 0.11) 2
P2 = P −2 =
2 (10 )
= 0.242W
( 20 x 0.02 ) 2
P3 = P −3 =
2 (10 )
= 0.008W
87
Exercise 4
● A frequency modulated signal (FM)
has the following expression:
v fm (t ) = 38 cos(400π × 10 6 t + m f sin 10π × 103 t )
The frequency deviation allowed in
this system is 75 kHz. Calculate the:
◦ Modulation index
◦ Bandwidth required, using Carson’s rule
75k
mf = = 15
5k
BW = 2 (75k + 5 k)
= 160 kHz 88
END OF ANGLE
MODULATION
89
