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The ratio of two persons A and B salaries in the ratio 12:7 if 12% increased salary yearly then what will be the B Salary after 2 yrs.The ratio of two persons A and B salaries in the ratio 12:7 if 12% increased salary yearly then what will be the B Salary after 2 yrs.The ratio of two persons A and B salaries in the ratio 12:7 if 12% increased salary yearly then what will be the B Salary after 2 yrs.The ratio of two persons A and B salaries in the ratio 12:7 if 12% increased salary yearly then

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30 views25 pages

Adobe Scan 17 Nov 2023

The ratio of two persons A and B salaries in the ratio 12:7 if 12% increased salary yearly then what will be the B Salary after 2 yrs.The ratio of two persons A and B salaries in the ratio 12:7 if 12% increased salary yearly then what will be the B Salary after 2 yrs.The ratio of two persons A and B salaries in the ratio 12:7 if 12% increased salary yearly then what will be the B Salary after 2 yrs.The ratio of two persons A and B salaries in the ratio 12:7 if 12% increased salary yearly then

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Megha Raju
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2.1, INTRODUCTION TO ANGLE MODULATION ¥ The timing parameters such as phase (or) Frequency of the carrier is modulated according to amplitude of modulating signal. ¥ Amplitude of angle modulated signal remains constant, The angle modulation can be broadly classified into two types such as : « Angle Modulation by Frequency Modulation Ato Sama v Freqeceey modulstion <3. Bessel Function Y The Bessel function, J,(m,) can be expanded in a power series given by 1 \nt2m w cor(3 m) Jay) = 2, ae 2 (19) Y Some important properties of the oo functions are as follows: a) J, (mj) = Jan gC) = “ae nos +20) 2a Communication —_$_$______—_—$_— (2) Fora small value of my: Som) = | “y mn Jy(m)) = a @) > Pm) = 1 i 2.8.3. Comparison of Wideband and Narrowband FM |SLNo. | Parameter/Characteristies Wideband FM Narrowband FM 1. | Modulation index Greater than 1 Less than (or) slightly greater than 1 |_2. | Maximum deviation 15 KHz 2a 3._| Range of modulating frequency | 30Hato 15 KHz 30 Hz to 3 KHz 4 Bandwidth Large, about 15 times | Small. Approximately same higher than BW of as that of AM. narrow band FM. BW=2m¢ fy BW=2 fm 5__| Maximum modulation index | 5 102500 Slightly greater than | 6. | Pre-emphasis and Needed Needed De-emphasis 7, Noise Noise is more Less suppressing of noise ‘Suppressed 8. | Applications Entertainment and FM mobile communication is broadcasting 2.6. TRANSMISSION BANDWIDTH OF FM “Theoretically the bandwidth of the FM wave is infinite, ~ But practically it is ealeulated based on how many sidebands have signifi amplitude. v The simplest method to calculate the bandwidth is.as follows: BW = 2if) Xm radians/eeg ad where on = Nabe of significant sidebands fn =m m>' ¥ With increase in modulation index, the Rumbep i Of significant sidebands increase. will increase the bandwidth. ingle Modulation 4 Carson’s Rule: ¥ The second method to find the practical bandwidth is a rule of thumb (Carson’s rule). ¥ Carson’s relé-states that the bandwidth of FM wave is twice the sum of the deviation and the highest modulation frequency BW = 2(Af+ fy) = 2Af+2f, = Af ae 2A haf = ray +2 roe 1 al 2a/(1sz} radian/sec «- Q) Eh Y This carson’s rule gives correct results if the modulation index is greater than 6. 2.7, GENERATION OF FM 2.7.1. Introduction ¥ The frequency modulated signals can be generated in two ways. 1, Direct method of FM. 2. Indirect method of FM. Fig. 2.8. Classification of FM generation methods ¥ In the indirect method of producing frequency modulation, the modulating signal is first used to produce a narrow-band FM signal, and frequency multiplication is next used to increase the frequency deviation to the desired level. 4 . » eae — 4 Com 2.16 mn cay wn The Y In the direct method, the carrier frequency is a” varied in ACOKdan oe input base-band signal. i rege tenis 4 a 2.7.2. Direct FM si ¥ Direct method of FM, two ways are available, . Varactor diode modulator, 2. » neon tA f= Y The frequency of an L-C oscillator is determined by tuning capacito, , inductor, . 4 ‘ acre Y If the system includes a reactive elen hose reactance can be varieg modulating signal, this results in pro frequency modulated way forms the basis of varactor diode modula tance tube modulator cirey ~ 2.7.2.4. Varactor Diode Y Varactor diode is a special PN junction diode which variable capacitor in the condition. Y The variable is the magnitude e va Rime * ce Ww where V = Reverse bias Y Silicon varactor diode reverse bias and OM reverse bias. Angle Modulation 217 A Here varactor diode is connes Cted across resonant circuit of an oscillator through a coupling capacitor Of relativel y a large value, ¥ The coupling Capacitor isolates the vari ‘actor diode from the oscillator as far as D.C concerned while Providing an effective Short circuit at operating frequencies, is Y The DC bias to the varactor di ‘ode is regulated so that the oscillator frequency is not affected by varactor Supply fluctuations, Working Principle: Y The modulating signal is fed in series with this regulated supply and at any instant, the effective bias to the Varactor diode equals the alge ebraic sum of the D.C bias voltage V and the instantaneous value of the ‘modulating signal, As a result, the varactor capacitance varies with the modulating signal resulting in.frequency modulation of the oscillator output, Y The capacitance C, of the diode is given by the relation Cy 5 K(Vpy 2 raat} where Vp is the total instantaneous Voltage across the diotle and K is a constant of proportionality. ¥ The expression for Vis giver by’ Vp = Vi +Modulating signal (f(¢)) = Vo t Vn Sit ©, t fe. (2) f Y The total capacitance of the oscillator tank circuit is (C, + C,) and, the instantaneous frequency of oscillation a; is given as, 1 Be i ~ (3) Meaty Case ) “ Ssiiaing C, fom ution) etn ve gt ¥ s Communicatig Ty n Th 8 aiid — nae which in turn depends on the mod, is dependent on the modulating a ma Ny Y This frequency o, is dependent on Vp f(t). Therefore, the oscillator frequency and thus frequency modulation is generated. Applications 1, Automatic frequency control. 2. Remote tuning) 2.7.2.2. Reactance Tube Modulator Fig. 2.11. FET reactance modulator Y The Fig. shows the basic circuit of FET reactance modulator. It behaves as reactancs across terminals A-B. ¥ The terminals A-B of the circuit may be connected across the tuned circuit of the oscillator to get FM output. The varying voltage (modulating voltage) V, across terminals A~B changes reactance of the FET. This change in reactance can be inductive (or) capacitive, v Neglecting gate current, let the current C and R be I. At the carrier frequency, the reactance of *C’ is much larger than R. We ean write equation for 1, as, |" —— ) wl) jot Y Since j@C >> R, we can write the above equation as, 1, = Joey, me) Angle Modulation 219 C———— ee ¥ From the circuit, we can write the gate voltage to be, V, = 1,R « @) ¥ Substituting equation (2) in equation (3), we can get V, = joCVR wn (A) ¥ The drain current of the FET is given‘as, 1a = &m* Ve a Substitute equation (4) in equation (5), 14 = joCRg, V += (6) ¥ From the circuit, impedance of the FET is, et Ty jg _CRV +e o JO [8mCR} z Q 1 am jo, i Y The equivalent capacitance (C,,) depends on the device transconductance =>. a’s Y The equivalent capacitance (C,,) can be set to any original value by adjusting the R and C values. Y Here Coy = Bm CR. Thus, the impedance of FET is capacitive reactance. By varying the lode voltage across FET, the operating Point By can be ated. Hence, this varies Coy Y This change in the capacitance will change the frequeney of the oscillator. Y If we connect inductance instead of cn we get Inductive reactance in the circuit, all nely Modulation 221 (id) Therefore it is not possible to use such oscillators for the communication or broadcast purpose (iii) The non-linearity produces a frequeney Variation due to the harmonics of the modualting signal and, hence the FM signal is distorted, Proper care has to be taken for keeping this distortion minimunty 2.23. INDIRECT METHOD OF FM WAVE GENERATION = ARMSTRONG METHOD (USE OF PM FOR GENERATING FM) Introduction N y¥ In this method, first the modulating signal is integrated and the phase modulated with the cartier signal, as a result of which some form of FM signal is obtained. ¥ Later frequency multipliers are used to get the desired wideband FM. ¥ In the indirect method a stable crystal oscillator is used to generate PM from which narrow band FM is obtained. Modulating signal Fig, 2.13, Indirect method [Armstrong method] of FM generation dyes % Technique used in indirect method: ie Y The phase modulated signal is represented Vem Mec sil ‘mp is the modulation index for phase Communicay ion ‘of the above phase modulated si, j al gy Y The instantaneous angular frequency ©? obtained by, j ¢ aT Be wil be will be, Y Here 0() = (aa, Fa ono = gt 8 9h ¥ In terms of linear frequencies, the above - % How to generate FM from. v In PM along with the Higher modulating v frequency deviation. Y The higher modulating voltage hence they also prod Y Thus in PM the carrier fi well as the modulating fre Y But in FM the frequency 4 regardless of its frequency. le Modulation 2.23 / 7 | Modulating o—}. | signat | RC low pass fiter its 2.14. Generation of FM using phase modulation To correct this Problem the modula (integrator), ting signal is passed through a low pass RC filter Due to this the high fre« quency modulating, signals are attenuated but there is no change in the amplitudes of lo. W frequeney modulating signals. « The filter output is then applied to a phase modulator along with the carrier. Hence the extra deviation in the carier fg 4 due to higher modulating frequency is compensated by reducing the amplitude of the high frequency modulating signals. a Hence the frequency deviation at the output of the phase modulator will be effectively Proportional only to the modulating voltage and we obtain an FM wave at the output of phase modulator. & Operation of phase modulator: Crystal oscillator @ | Carer Combining PM wa network Fig. 2.15. Phase modulator cireuit Y The crystal oscillator produces a stable unmodulated carrier which is applied to the “90° phase shifter” as wells the “combining network” through a butler, a 4 a aa ae = Y The audio equalizer already been dis 2.8. DEMODULATION OF 2.8.1. Introduction Frequency demodulation is a frequency m ed signal. are calle FM detectors. tugle Modulation * The detector performs the extraction in two steps: (9 Teconverts the frequeney modulated (FM) Signal into a corresponding amplitude modulated (AM) signal by using frequency-dependent cirouits, ie., circuits whose output voltage depends on input frequency, Such circuits are called as frequency discriminators, (H) The original modulating signal is recovered from this AM signal by using a linear diode envelope detector, y A simple R-L circuit can be used as a discriminator, but this circuit ha a poor sensitivity as compared to a tuned LC circuit, ~ The FM discriminators suffer from the threshold effect in the presence of excessive noise y The threshold can be increased by pre-emphasis and de-emphasis circuits. + FM discriminators can be divided into two types. 1. Slope Detectors. The principle of operation depends on the slope of the frequeney response characteristics {a frequency selective networks, (0 Single tuned discriminator (or) slope detector, (i) Stagger tuned discriminator (or) Balanced slope detector. 2. Phase Discriminator (i) Foster-Seeley discriminator, (ii) Ratio detector 2.8.2. Slope Detectors 2.8.2.1. Single Slope Circuit (Single Tuned Circuit) + Principle of Slope Detection Y Consider a tuned circuit in Fig.2.17, A FM signal is applied at the input of the tuned circuit, “ The center frequency of the FM signal is te and the frequency deviation is A/, Y The resonant frequency of the tuned circuit ‘ : oe is deliberately adjusted to (fet Af), Fig. 2.17, Tuned elreuit & Operation: — ~ By tuning the carrier ar Y In this case, the ¢ carrier frequency fe Y When the signal freq carrier voltage drops: voltage rises. Jungle Modulation 1 2.21 IL ¥ The change of voltage results because of the change in the magnitude of the impedance in the tuned circuit as a function of frequency and results in an effective conversion of frequency modulation into amplitude modulation, Y The modulation is recovered from the amplitude modulation by means of a normal operation of the circuit, + Disadvantages: The slope detector circuit has the following disadvantages: (i) Itis inefficient, (ii) Itis linear only over a limited frequency range. (iii) IWis difficult to adjust as the primary and secondary windings of the transformer must be tuned to slightly different frequencies, % The only advantage of the basic slope detector circuit is its simplicity. To overcome the drawbacks of the simple slope detector, a “balanced slope detector” is used. 2.8.2.2. Balanced Slope Detector (or) Round-Travis Detector . fe er af) | FM input ® Ue-4f) | D Fig. 2.20. Balanced slope detector ¥ The circuit diagram shows that, the balanced slope detector consists of two slope detector circuits. Y The input transformer has a center tapped secondary. Hence the input voltages to the two slope detectors are 180° out of phase. Y The upper tuned circuit of the secondary tuned above f. by Af ie,, its resonant frequency is (fc + Af). The lower tuned circuit of the secondary is tuned below fc by Afie, at(fo-Af). , Voltages of the two slope detectors. The final the subtraction of the individual output-votiages: Vor and Von ie (fe-Af)

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