Introduction

◼ Angle modulation is the process by

which the angle (frequency or phase)
of the carrier signal is changed in
ANGLE MODULATION accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of modulating or message
signal.

Cont’d… Cont’d…
◼ classified into two types such as
Advantages over AM:
 Frequency modulation (FM) ➢ Freedom from interference: all natural and
 Phase modulation (PM) external noise consist of amplitude variations,
thus receiver usually cannot distinguish
◼ Used for : between amplitude of noise or desired signal.
 Commercial radio broadcasting AM is noisy than FM.
 Television sound transmission
➢ Operate in very high frequency band (VHF):
 Two way mobile radio
88MHz-108MHz
 Cellular radio
 Microwave and satellite communication system ➢ Can transmit musical programs with higher
degree of fidelity.

FREQUENCY MODULATION
PRINCIPLES The carrier is
drawn as a
triangular wave
◼ In FM the carrier amplitude remains for
simplicity, but
constant, the carrier frequency varies in practice it is
a sine wave. (a)
with the amplitude of modulating Carrier.
(b) Modulating
signal. signal.
(c) FM signal.
◼ The amount of change in carrier
frequency produced by the modulating
signal is known as frequency
deviation.

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 FREQUENCY MODULATION
(FM) FM(cont’d)

◼ A process where the frequency of the ◼ Mathematical analysis:

carrier wave varies with the magnitude ◼ Let message signal:

 m (t ) = Vm cos mt
variations of the modulating or audio
signal.
◼ The amplitude of the carrier wave is ◼ And carrier signal:
kept constant.  c (t ) = Vc cos[ ct +  ]

FM (cont’d)

◼ During the process of frequency modulations the

frequency of carrier signal is changed in accordance
with the instantaneous amplitude of message signal
.Therefore the frequency of carrier after modulation is
written as
i = c + K1v m (t ) = C + K1Vm cos m t
i = c + K1v m (t ) = C + K1Vm cos m t
i = c + K1v m (t ) = C + K1Vm cos m t

i =  i dt =  (C + K1Vm cos m t )dt = C t +

K1Vm
sin m t
m

FM(cont’d) FM(cont’d)

◼ Frequency deviation: ∆f is the relative

◼ Thus, we get the FM wave as:
placement of carrier frequency (Hz) w.r.t
K1Vm
v FM ( t ) = Vc cos 1 = VC cos(C t + sin m t ) its unmodulated value. Given as:
m
max = C + K1Vm
vFM (t ) = VC cos(Ct + m f sin mt ) min = C − K1Vm

◼ Where modulation index for FM is given by

d = max − C = C − min = K1Vm
K1Vm d K1Vm
mf = f = =
m 2 2

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 FM(cont’d)

◼ Therefore:

K1Vm
f = ;
2
f
mf =
fm

PHASE MODULATION(PM)

◼ The process by which changing the phase of carrier

signal in accordance with the instantaneous of message
signal. The amplitude remains constant after the
modulation process.
◼ Mathematical analysis:
Let message signal:
 m (t ) = Vm cos mt
And carrier signal:
 c (t ) = Vc cos[ ct +  ]

PM (cont’d)

◼ Where  = phase angle of carrier signal. It is changed

in accordance with the amplitude of the message
signal;
◼ i.e.  = KVm (t ) = KVm cosmt
◼ After phase modulation the instantaneous voltage will
be v ( t ) = V cos( t + KV cos  t ) or
pm C C m m

v pm ( t ) = VC cos(C t + m p cos m t )

◼ Where mp = Modulation index of phase modulation

◼ K is a constant and called deviation sensitivities of the
phase

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Example (FM) Example (PM)

◼ Determine the peak frequency deviation ◼ Determine the peak phase deviation (m)
(∆f) and modulation index (m) for an FM for a PM modulator with a deviation
modulator with a deviation sensitivity K1 = 5 sensitivity K = 2.5 rad/V and a modulating
kHz/V and a modulating signal, signal, vm (t ) = 2 cos(22000t )
vm (t ) = 2 cos(22000t )

Problems Problem

Problem Problem

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 FM&PM (Bessel function)

◼ Thus, for general equation:

vFM (t ) = VC cos(Ct + m f cosmt )
cos( + m cos  )

 n 
cos( + m cos) = J
n = −
n (m) cos  + n + 
 2 

 n 
m(t ) = VC J
n = −
n (m) cos c t + nmt +


2 

Bessel function B.F. (cont’d)

   
v(t )FM = VC {J 0 (m f ) cos C t + J1 (m f ) cos(C + m ) t +  − J1 (m f ) cos(C − m ) t − 
 2  2

+ J 2 (mf ) cos(C + 2m ) t  + J 2 (mf ) cos(C − 2m ) t  + ...J n (mf )...}

Bessel Functions of the First Kind, Jn(m)

for some value of modulation index Representation of frequency spectrum

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 Example Soln
◼ For an FM modulator with a modulation
index m = 1, a modulating signal vm(t) =
Vmsin(2π1000t), and an unmodulated
carrier vc(t) = 10sin(2π500kt). Determine
the number of sets of significant side
frequencies and their amplitudes. Then,
draw the frequency spectrum showing
their relative amplitudes.

Soln.
FM Bandwidth
◼ Theoretically, the generation and transmission of FM requires
infinite bandwidth. Practically, FM system have finite bandwidth
and they perform well.
◼ The value of modulation index determine the number of
sidebands that have the significant relative amplitudes
◼ If n is the number of sideband pairs, and line of frequency
spectrum are spaced by fm, thus, the bandwidth is:

B fm = 2nfm
◼ For n≥1

FM Bandwidth (cont’d) Example

◼ Estimation of transmission b/w; ◼ For an FM modulator with a peak frequency
◼ Assume mf is large and n is approximate mf + 2; thus deviation, Δf = 10 kHz, a modulating-signal
◼ Bfm=2(mf + 2)fm frequency fm = 10 kHz, Vc = 10 V and a 500
f
kHz carrier, determine
= 2( + 2) f m  Actual minimum bandwidth from the Bessel
fm
function table.
B fm = 2(f + f m )........(1)  Approximate minimum bandwidth using
Carson’s rule.
Then
Plot the output frequency spectrum for the
(1) is called Carson’s rule Bessel approximation.

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Solution Solution

Deviation Ratio (DR) Example

◼ The worse case modulation index which produces the widest ◼ Determine the deviation ratio and bandwidth
output frequency spectrum.
for the worst-case (widest-bandwidth)
f (max)
DR = f m (max)
modulation index for an FM broadcast-band
transmitter with a maximum frequency
◼ Where
deviation of 75 kHz and a maximum
 ∆f(max) = max. peak frequency deviation modulating-signal frequency of 15 kHz.
 fm(max) = max. modulating signal frequency ◼ Determine the deviation ratio and maximum
bandwidth for an equal modulation index
with only half the peak frequency deviation
and modulating-signal frequency.

FM Power Distribution FM Power Distribution (cont’d)

◼ As seen in Bessel function table, it shows that as the ◼ In effect, in FM, the total power that is originally in the
sideband relative amplitude increases, the carrier carrier is redistributed between all components of the
amplitude,J0 decreases. spectrum, in an amount determined by the
modulation index, mf, and the corresponding Bessel
◼ This is because, in FM, the total transmitted power is functions.
always constant and the total average power is equal ◼ At certain value of modulation index, the carrier
to the unmodulated carrier power, that is the
amplitude of the FM remains constant whether or not component goes to zero, where in this condition, the
it is modulated. power is carried by the sidebands only.

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 Average Power
Example
2
V
◼ The average power in unmodulated carrier Pc = c
◼ For an FM modulator with a modulation
2R
index m = 1, a modulating signal
◼ The total instantaneous power in the angle modulated carrier.
vm(t) = Vmsin(2π1000t),
m( t ) 2 Vc2
Pt = = cos2 [c t + ( t )] and an unmodulated carrier
R R
V2 1 1  V
2 vc(t) = 10sin(2π500kt).
Pt = c  + cos[2c t + 2( t )] = c
R 2 2  2 R Determine the unmodulated carrier power
for the FM modulator given with a load
◼ The total modulated power
resistance, RL = 50Ω. Determine also the
Vc2 2(V1 ) 2 2(V2 ) 2 2(Vn ) 2 total power in the angle-modulated wave.
Pt = P0 + P1 + P2 + .. + Pn = + + + .. +
2R 2R 2R 2R

Quiz
◼ For an FM modulator with modulation index,
m = 2, modulating signal,
vm(t) = Vmcos(2π2000t),
and an unmodulated carrier,
vc(t) = 10 cos(2π800kt).

a) Determine the number of sets of significant

sidebands.
b) Determine their amplitudes.
c) Draw the frequency spectrum showing the relative
amplitudes of the side frequencies.
d) Determine the bandwidth.
e) Determine the total power of the modulated wave.

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 FM Modulators

◼ Generation of NBFM

Direct Method ◼ The block diagram of the generation of WBFM wave is

shown in the following figure.

◼ This method is called as the Direct Method

because we are generating a wide band FM
wave directly.
◼ In this method, Voltage Controlled Oscillator
(VCO) is used to generate WBFM.
◼ VCO produces an output signal, whose
frequency is proportional to the input signal
voltage.
◼ This is similar to the definition of FM wave.

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 Indirect Method
 The block diagram of generation of WBFM wave is shown in the
following figure.

◼ This method is called Indirect Method

because we are generating a wide band
FM wave indirectly.
◼ This means, first we will generate
 This block diagram contains mainly two stages.
NBFM wave and then with the help of  In the first stage, the NBFM wave will be generated using NBFM
frequency multipliers we will get WBFM modulator.
 We know that the modulation index of NBFM wave is less than
wave. one.
 Hence, in order to get the required modulation index (greater than
one) of FM wave, choose the frequency multiplier value properly.

FM Demodulators
◼ Frequency multiplier is a non-linear device, which
produces an output signal whose frequency is ‘n’ times the
input signal frequency. ◼ The following two methods
Where, ‘n’ is the multiplication factor.
demodulate FM wave.
◼ If NBFM wave whose modulation index β less than 1 is
applied as the input of frequency multiplier, then the
frequency multiplier produces an output signal, whose
modulation index is ‘n’ times β and the frequency also ‘n’
times the frequency of WBFM wave.
◼ Sometimes, we may require multiple stages of frequency
multiplier and mixers in order to increase the frequency
deviation and modulation index of FM wave.

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◼ In the above equation, the amplitude term resembles the
envelope of AM wave and the angle term resembles the
angle of FM wave.
◼ Here, our requirement is the modulating signal m(t). ◼ This block diagram consists of the differentiator and the envelope
detector.
◼ Hence, we can recover it from the envelope of AM wave. ◼ Differentiator is used to convert the FM wave into a combination of
AM wave and FM wave.
◼ This means, it converts the frequency variations of FM wave into
the corresponding voltage (amplitude) variations of AM wave.
◼ We know the operation of the envelope detector. It produces the
demodulated output of AM wave, which is nothing but the
modulating signal.

Phase Discrimination Method

Comparison AM and FM Application of FM

◼ Its the SNR can be increased without increasing transmitted
power about 25dB higher than in AM ◼ FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies for
high-fidelity broadcasts of music and speech (FM
◼ Certain forms of interference at the receiver are more easily broadcasting). Normal (analog) TV sound is also
to suppressed, as FM receiver has a limiter which eliminates
the amplitude variations and fluctuations. broadcast using FM. The type of FM used in
broadcast is generally called wide-FM, or W-FM
◼ The modulation process can take place at a low level power ◼ A narrowband form is used for voice
stage in the transmitter, thus a low modulating power is
needed. communications in commercial and amateur radio
settings. In two-way radio, narrowband narrow-fm
◼ Power content is constant and fixed, and there is no waste of (N-FM) is used to conserve bandwidth. In addition,
power transmitted it is used to send signals into space.
◼ There are guard bands in FM systems allocated by the
standardization body, which can reduce interference between
the adjacent channels.

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 Summary (cont’d)-
Summary (cont’d) Comparison NBFM&WBFM

◼ Bandwidth:
a) Actual minimum bandwidth from Bessel
table:
B = 2(n  f m )

b) Approximate minimum bandwidth using

Carson’s rule:
B = 2(f + f m )

Advantages Disadvantages

◼ Angle modulation requires a

◼ Wideband FM gives significant improvement in the SNR at the output
of the RX which proportional to the square of modulation index. transmission bandwidth much larger
◼ Angle modulation is resistant to propagation-induced selective fading than the message signal bandwidth.
since amplitude variations are unimportant and are removed at the
receiver using a limiting circuit. ◼ Angle modulation requires more
◼ Angle modulation is very effective in rejecting interference. (minimizes
the effect of noise).
complex and expensive circuits than
◼ Angle modulation allows the use of more efficient transmitter power in AM.
information.
◼ Angle modulation is capable of handing a greater dynamic range of
modulating signal without distortion than AM.

Exercise

◼ Determine the deviation ratio and

worst-case bandwidth for an FM signal
with a maximum frequency deviation
25 kHz and maximum modulating
signal 12.5 kHz.

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Exercise 2

◼ For an FM modulator with 40-kHz

frequency deviation and a modulating-
signal frequency 10 kHz, determine
the bandwidth using both Carson’s rule
and Bessel table.

Exercise 3

◼ For an FM modulator with an

unmodulated carrier amplitude 20 V, a
modulation index, m = 1, and a load
resistance of 10-ohm, determine the
power in the modulated carrier and
each side frequency, and sketch the
power spectrum for the modulated
wave.

Exercise 4
◼ A frequency modulated signal (FM) has
the following expression:
v fm (t ) = 38 cos(400 106 t + m f sin10 103 t )
The frequency deviation allowed in this
system is 75 kHz. Calculate the:
 Modulation index
 Bandwidth required, using Carson’s rule

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