Computer Organization and Architecture
(CoSc 2022)
Chapter 4: Register Transfer Language and Micro Operations
Outline
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Register transfer languages
4.3. Bus and memory transfer
4.4. Arithmetic and logic operations
4.5. Shift micro operations
Introduction
3
Introduction
4
Register transfer languages
Digital System: An interconnection of hardware
modules that do a certain task on the information.
Registers + Operations performed on the data stored
in them = Digital Module
Modules are interconnected with common data and
control paths to form a digital computer system
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Register Transfer Language
Microoperations: operations executed on data stored in
one or more registers.
For any function of the computer, a sequence of
microoperations is used to describe it
The result of the operation may be:
replace the previous binary information of a register or
transferred to another register
Shift Right Operation
101101110011 010110111001
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Register Transfer Language
The internal hardware organization of a digital
computer is defined by specifying:
The set of registers it contains and their function
The sequence of microoperations performed on the binary information
stored in the registers
The control that initiates the sequence of microoperations
Registers + Microoperations Hardware + Control
Functions = Digital Computer
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Register Transfer Language
Register Transfer Language (RTL) : a symbolic
notation to describe the microoperation transfers among
registers
Next steps:
Define symbols for various types of microoperations,
Describe the hardware that implements these microoperations
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Register transfer languages
Register Transfer Language, RTL, (sometimes
called register transfer notation) is a powerful
high level method of describing the
architecture of a circuit.
VHDL code and schematics are often created
from RTL.
RTL describes the transfer of data from register
to register, known as microinstructions or
microoperations.
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Bus and Memory Transfers
Paths must be provided to transfer information from
one register to another
A Common Bus System is a scheme for transferring
information between registers in a multiple-register
configuration
A bus: set of common lines, one for each bit of a
register, through which binary information is transferred
one at a time
Control signals determine which register is selected by
the bus during each particular register transfer
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Bus and Memory Transfers
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Bus and Memory Transfers
The transfer of information from a bus into one of many
destination registers is done:
By connecting the bus lines to the inputs of all destination
registers and then:
activating the load control of the particular destination
register selected
We write: R2 ← C to symbolize that the content of
register C is loaded into the register R2 using the
common system bus
It is equivalent to: BUS ←C, (select C)
R2 ←BUS (Load R2)
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Bus and Memory Transfers
Three-State Bus Buffers
A bus system can be constructed with three-state
buffer gates instead of multiplexers
A three-state buffer is a digital circuit that exhibits
three states: logic-0, logic-1, and high-impedance
(Hi-Z)
Three-State Buffer
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Bus and Memory Transfers
Three-State Bus Buffers
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Bus and Memory Transfers
Three-State Bus Buffers
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Bus and Memory Transfers
Memory Transfer
Memory read : Transfer from memory
Memory write : Transfer to memory
Data being read or wrote is called a memory word (called
M)
It is necessary to specify the address of M when writing
/reading memory
This is done by enclosing the address in square brackets
following the letter M
Example: M[0016] : the memory contents at address
0x0016
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Bus and Memory Transfers
Memory Transfer
Assume that the address of a memory unit is stored in a
register called the Address Register AR
Lets represent a Data Register with DR, then:
Read: DR ← M[AR]
Write: M[AR] ← DR
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Bus and Memory Transfers
Memory Transfer
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Arithmetic Microoperations
The microoperations most often encountered in digital
computers are classified into four categories:
Register transfer microoperations
Arithmetic microoperations (on numeric data stored in the
registers)
Logic microoperations (bit manipulations on non-numeric
data)
Shift microoperations
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Arithmetic Microoperations
The basic arithmetic microoperations are:
addition, subtraction, increment, decrement, and shift
Addition Microoperation:
R3 ←R1+R2
Subtraction Microoperation:
R3 ←R1-R2 or : 1’s
complement
R3 ←R1+R2+1
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Arithmetic Microoperations
One’s Complement Microoperation:
R2 ←R2
Two’s Complement Microoperation:
R2 ←R2+1
Increment Microoperation:
R2 ←R2+1
Decrement Microoperation:
R2 ←R2-1
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Half Adder/Full Adder
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Arithmetic Microoperations Binary Adder
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Arithmetic Microoperations Binary Adder-
Subtractor
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Arithmetic Microoperations Binary Adder-
Subtractor
For unsigned numbers, this gives A – B if A≥B or the
2’s complement of (B – A) if A < B
(example: 3 – 5 = -2= 1110)
For signed numbers, the result is A – B provided that
there is no overflow. (example : -3 – 5= -8)
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Arithmetic Microoperations Binary Adder-
Subtractor
What is the range of unsigned numbers that can be
represented in 4 bits?
What is the range of signed numbers that can be
represented in 4 bits?
Repeat for n-bit?!
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Arithmetic Microoperations Binary
Incrementer
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Arithmetic Microoperations Binary
Incrementer
Binary Incrementer can also be implemented using a
counter
A binary decrementer can be implemented by adding
1111 to the desired register each time!
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Arithmetic Microoperations Arithmetic Circuit
This circuit performs seven distinct arithmetic
operations and the basic component of it is the parallel
adder
The output of the binary adder is calculated from the
following arithmetic sum:
D = A + Y + Cin
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Arithmetic Microoperations Arithmetic
Circuit
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Logic Microoperations
OR Microoperation
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Logic Microoperations
AND Microoperation
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Logic Microoperations
Complement (NOT) Microoperation
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Logic Microoperations
XOR (Exclusive-OR) Microoperation
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Logic Microoperations
Other Logic Microoperations
Selective-set Operation
Used to force selected bits of a register into logic-1 by
using the OR operation
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Logic Microoperations
Other Logic Microoperations
Selective-complement (toggling) Operation
Used to force selected bits of a register to be
complemented by using the XOR operation
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Logic Microoperations
Other Logic Microoperations
Insert Operation
Step1: mask the desired bits
Step2: OR them with the desired value
Example: suppose R1 = 0110 1010, and we desire to
replace the leftmost 4 bits (0110) with 1001 then:
Step1: 0110 1010 0000 1111
Step2: 0000 1010 1001 0000
R1 = 1001 1010
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Logic Microoperations
Other Logic Microoperations
NAND Microoperation
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Logic Microoperations
Other Logic Microoperations
NOR Microoperation
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Logic Microoperations
Other Logic Microoperations
Set (Preset) Microoperation
Force all bits into 1’s by ORing them with a value in
which all its bits are being assigned to logic-1
Example: 100110 111111 = 111111
2 2 2
Clear (Reset) Microoperation
Force all bits into 0’s by ANDing them with a value in
which all its bits are being assigned to logic-0
Example: 100110 000000 = 000000
2 2 2
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Logic Microoperations
Hardware Implementation
The hardware implementation of logic microoperations
requires that logic gates be inserted for each bit or pair of
bits in the registers to perform the required logic function
Most computers use only four (AND, OR, XOR, and
NOT) from which all others can be derived.
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Logic Microoperations
Hardware Implementation
Figure B
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Shift Microoperations
Used for serial transfer of data
Also used in conjunction with arithmetic, logic, and
other data-processing operations
The contents of the register can be shifted to the left or
to the right
As being shifted, the first flip-flop receives its binary
information from the serial input
Three types of shift: Logical, Circular, and Arithmetic
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Shift Microoperations
**Note that the bit ri is the bit at position (i) of the register
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Shift Microoperations
Logical Shifts
Transfers 0 through the serial input
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Shift Microoperations
Circular Shifts (Rotate Operation)
Circulates the bits of the register around the two ends
without loss of information
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Shift Microoperations
Arithmetic Shifts
Shifts a signed binary number to the left or right
An arithmetic shift-left multiplies a signed binary number
by 2: ashl (00100): 01000
An arithmetic shift-right divides the number by 2
ashr (00100) : 00010
An overflow may occur in arithmetic shift-left, and
occurs when the sign bit is changed (sign reversal)
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Shift Microoperations
Arithmetic Shifts
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Shift Microoperations
Arithmetic Shifts
An overflow flip-flop V can be used to detect an
s
arithmetic shift-left overflow
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Shift Microoperations
Example: Assume R1=11001110, then:
Arithmetic shift right once : R1 = 11100111
Arithmetic shift right twice : R1 = 11110011
Arithmetic shift left once : R1 = 10011100
Arithmetic shift left twice : R1 = 00111000
Logical shift right once : R1 = 01100111
Logical shift left once : R1 = 10011100
Circular shift right once : R1 = 01100111
Circular shift left once : R1 = 10011101
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Shift Microoperations
Hardware Implementation
A possible choice for a shift unit would be a bidirectional
shift register with parallel load (refer to Fig 2-9). Has
drawbacks:
Needs two pulses (the clock and the shift signal pulse)
Not efficient in a processor unit where multiple number of
registers share a common bus
It is more efficient to implement the shift operation with
a combinational circuit
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Shift Microoperations
Hardware Implementation
52
Arithmetic Logic Shift Unit
Instead of having individual registers performing the
microoperations directly, computer systems employ a
number of storage registers connected to a common
operational unit called an Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
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Arithmetic Logic Shift Unit
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